“Founded in the middle of the 10th century, the empire developed over eight and a half centuries, and ceased to exist in 1806. In form of government, it was a feudal-theocratic interstate entity, which was controlled by an extensive bureaucratic apparatus. At its origins stood Otto the First, who tried in every possible way to realize the idea of ​​Charlemagne and Constantine the Great about Christian unity and equality. The guardian of this concept for many centuries was the church, which played an important role in the development of the Holy Roman Empire. The doctrines of the state were laid down in the work of St. Augustine, who believed that such an empire would ensure the unity of Christians throughout the world."

State name

It was first introduced by Charlemagne, who for some time enjoyed the title of Emperor of the Roman Empire. After him, the rulers preferred to be called simply emperors Augusti, without territorial specification. Rome, i.e. the whole world was automatically implied in this entire title, the power of which was gradually to cover vast areas. Only from the middle of the 10th century. the state began to be called The Roman Empire, which meant the country of the Germans. By the 30s. XI century this name was officially assigned to the empire. Because of this, a contradiction arose with Constantinople, because he considered himself the successor of Rome. As a result, diplomatic problems and contradictions constantly arose between Germany and Byzantium. In written sources the name appeared only from the middle of the 12th century, when he was in power Frederick the First Barbarossa. Under him, the state was officially called Holy Empire, and the word Roman added only a hundred years later, in the middle of the 13th century. Another two hundred years later, the phrase German nation was added, which emphasized the territorial isolation and greatness of Germany. It was precisely this formulation that was characteristic of the country until the beginning of the 19th century.

Composition of the empire

The center of the state was the territory of modern Germany, around which other lands united. In particular, the central part of Italy, all of the Netherlands and the Czech Republic were always part of the empire. Sometimes small French regions were included. Because of this it was believed that Holy Roman Empire is the unification of three kingdoms. These were Italian, German and Burgundian, although the Czech Republic also claimed this full status. Under the Ottones and their descendants, vast territories were conquered in Central, Eastern, Southern and Western Europe. In particular, lands inhabited by tribes of Lusatian Serbs, Bavarians, Lorraineers, Franconians and others were annexed.

The state structure of the empire in the XX-XIX centuries.

The creator is considered Otto the First, who sought to recreate two countries - ancient Rome and the Frankish state of Charlemagne. This determined the internal structure of the state, which throughout its existence was decentralized, although the imperial power was supreme. The hierarchical structure looked like this:

The state was headed by an emperor who did not have a hereditary title. Only the college of electors, which chose the emperor, could appropriate it. His power was limited to representatives of aristocratic circles, but only in Germany. Later, this function was performed by the Reichstag, which included the main families of the empire;

Territorial princes had local power;
Imperial Knights;
City Magistrate;
Aristocracy;
Clergy;
Peasants.
City dwellers.

The state has undergone an evolution from a feudal and theocratic formation to independent subjects of the federation. The crisis of centralization of power occurred when it was captured Italy. This happened in the XV-XVI centuries. and local princes got a chance to strengthen their positions. This is how the first trends towards decentralization appeared, when the lands of the empire received the status of autonomous or independent. At the turn of the XV-XVI centuries. The ruling dynasty organized a reform aimed at strengthening the central apparatus of power and weakening aristocratic rule. The idea was a success, because... a new balance of power emerged - strong imperial power and weaker classes.

The situation changed with the beginning Reformation, which contributed to the fact that in the 17th century. The German Reichstag became a representative body. It included almost all classes of the empire, which subsequently ensured the expansion of the rights of imperial state entities, the rights and privileges of all classes. This also applied to various faiths, when Catholics and Protestants were actually equal in rights. Reformation provided many Protestant principalities with significant independence and rights. They got a chance for internal consolidation and the gradual development of their own statehood. In the 18th century the powers of the central government were significantly reduced, which subsequently ended in the collapse of the state. The catalyst for this was wars Napoleon Bonaparte, whose attacks forced the German states to form an alliance called the Rhineland.

Thus, from the middle of the 10th century. until the beginning of the 19th century. the empire was a kind of hybrid of a federation and a confederation. During this time the country was feudal, and these trends lasted for almost nine centuries. The country was divided into the following entities:

Electorates and duchies that were autonomous, semi-independent or independent;
Principalities and counties;
Cities that have Magdenburg Law;
Abbeys;
Imperial possessions of the knights.

They were headed by princes - either clergy or secular persons, who were obligatorily subordinate to the imperial authority. Each city, land, and duchy was ruled by princes, magistrates, and knights, which allows us to talk about a two-tier system of leadership. Firstly, these were imperial entities. Secondly, territorial. Civil strife constantly broke out between them, most often over supreme power. Most often, Bavaria, Prussia and Austria “sinned” with this. The church had separate rights, which is why the empire was considered theocratic. This allowed representatives of different faiths to exist peacefully. Empire since the 10th century to the 19th century was constantly characterized by contradictory development, because Two key trends competed with each other - separation and full integration. Large principalities, which had broad powers and a certain autonomy in foreign and domestic policy, sought to decentralize. The princes were quite independent from the emperor, so they independently chose the vectors of their development.

The unifying factors were:

The presence of class authorities - the Reichstag, the court and the zemstvo world system;
Church;
Mentality and self-awareness;
The class structure of society, which influenced the state structure;
The exaltation of the emperor, as a result of which patriotism appeared.

Ottonian Dynasty

From the second half of the 10th century. to the beginning of the 11th century. The dynasty of the founders of the empire was in power. They laid down the tradition of electing clergy, who were appointed and approved by the emperor. All priests, abbots and bishops were required to swear an oath to the ruler, which integrated the church into the state. At the same time, it was both a pillar of power and a symbol of unity. This was especially evident during the anti-feudal uprisings that broke out from time to time in various parts of the empire. The Ottonians had the right to appoint and remove popes, which resulted in a merger of spiritual and temporal power. This was most evident during the reign of the two emperors Conrad the Second and Henry the Third(XI century).

The Ottonians were able to form a strong apparatus of central power, while other institutions were poorly developed. The emperor was the sole ruler of three kingdoms, the ownership of which was inherited. The state was formed on the basis of duchies created on the basis of tribes. Among the external rivals the following stood out:

Slavs, especially Western ones. They settled on the river. Elba, having mastered the northern regions of the empire. This trend continued into the 21st century, since the Lusatian Serbs are one of the ethnic groups in the north of modern Germany. They stopped the influence of the Poles and Hungarians, who were able to defend their independence from the influence of the German tribes;

Creation of a large number of stamps in Italy, France and other kingdoms of Western Europe;
Fight against Arab invaders and Byzantines;
In Italy, imperial power was strengthened only sporadically, but complete subjugation did not occur. The capture of Rome was a symbol of the empire, for which it was necessary to justify the tradition of succession. Under Otto the Third, the Italian capital was briefly turned into the center of the empire, but then returned back to Germany.

Salic dynasty

From the 11th century Representatives of another family came to power, the first of which was Conrad the Second. Under him, a class of knights arose who owned small lands. Their rights were enshrined in law, which became the basis for the formation of the feudal system and law. They were relied upon by rulers who sought support among knights and landowners, especially in matters of integration. Under Conrad the Second and Henry the Third appanage princes were appointed personally by the emperor, which led to conflicts with wealthy aristocrats and landowners. To avoid constant clashes and eliminate manifestations of discontent, wars, conflicts, and struggles were prohibited in the state.

Henry the Fourth, as a child, he was constantly faced with the fact that the emperor’s power was falling. The situation was aggravated by the fact that radical reforms began in the church. One of them was associated with Gregory the Seventh, who started a struggle between the emperor and Vatican. He sought to gain complete independence from Germany, to prove that the power of the Pope was higher than secular. In history this confrontation is known as investiture, which was characterized by a long struggle between Gregory the Seventh and Henry the Fourth. The confrontation finally ended after the death of the latter, when it was signed Concordat of Worms. According to its terms, episcopal positions were elected freely, without interference from the emperor. It was possible to preserve the distribution of possessions, and, accordingly, to appoint clergy. The result of the confrontation Salic dynasty And Vatican there was a significant strengthening of regional princes and knights who received allotments for their service.

Supplinburg Dynasty

Historically, the Supplinburgs were in opposition to both the Salic dynasty and the Hohenstaufens. After Henry V of the Salic dynasty left no heirs in 1125, the civil war of succession between the Supplinburgs and the Hohenstaufens was won by Lothair II. But the history of the reign of the Supplinburg dynasty turned out to be fleeting, because. Lothair II had only one daughter and ended in 1137 with the death of Lothair II.

Hohenstaufen rule

The reign of representatives of this dynasty was determined by the confrontation with another family - the Welves. Both families aspired to rule the empire. The Staufens' patrimonial estates were Swabia, Franconia and Alsace, which united into the southwestern region. The most famous representatives of the dynasty were Conrad the Third and Friedrich First Barbarossa, under which central power was significantly strengthened. The reign of the latter was the pinnacle of the power of the state, which more than one emperor could not repeat afterwards. In addition to unifying the country, Frederick fought to restore German dominance in Italy. In Rome, he achieved a coronation, after which he made an attempt to legally formalize rule in the Apennines and Germany. But Italian cities, Pope Alexander III, and the Sicilian king opposed it. They created the so-called Lombard League, which defeated Frederick's troops. The results of the Italian company were:

German recognition of the autonomy of the northern cities of the Kingdom of Italy;
The division of the possessions of Frederick's opponents - the Welf dynasty, from whose lands the domain of the ruling family was created;
The Emperor strengthened his influence in the German lands;
The population supported the Third Crusade, which Barbarossa launched and during which he died.

His son became the next emperor Henry the Sixth, who was engaged in active foreign and domestic policy. Under him, territories such as Sicily and the southern part of the Apennines were included in the state. He also significantly strengthened the institution of the monarchy, making it hereditary. The bureaucratic system was strengthened, covering the entire country, which consolidated autocracy in the German lands. But here the emperor constantly ran into resistance from the princes in the regions, who started an internecine war. After the death of Henry the Sixth, the local aristocrats chose their own rulers, so the empire began to be ruled by two emperors at once: Frederick the Second from the Staufens and Otto the Fourth from the Welfs. The confrontation ended only in 1230, when Frederick II made significant concessions to the nobility:

In 1220 he initiated the signing of an agreement with the so-called princes of the church;
In 1232, a Decree appeared in favor of the aristocrats.

According to the documents, bishops and secular princes were recognized as sovereigns in their own dominions. This was the first step towards the creation of hereditary state entities that were semi-independent in nature and practically not subject to central authority. The Hohenstaufens ceased to exist by the middle of the 12th century, which is why the entire empire plunged into a period of endless unrest for twenty years. They ended in 1273, when the first representative from the family was elected to the throne Habsburgs. The emperor was no longer able to strengthen his power; the terms of his rule were dictated to him by princes and aristocrats. The interests of individual lands began to play a leading role, which had a negative impact on development Holy Roman Empire. Occupying the imperial throne was prestigious, but only after the family possessions had been significantly strengthened. To do this, they had to be expanded and received broad privileges and autonomy from the sovereign.

Empire in the XIV-XV centuries.

accession Habsburgs became a turning point for the country. They inherited Austria, Wittelsbach went to Holland, Brandenburg, Gennegau, and Luxembourg– vast territories in Central Europe, in particular the Czech Republic and Moravia.
Decentralized tendencies began to dominate in the internal life of the country.

Firstly, the dominance of the principle of election of the ruler. Various candidates could apply for the post of emperor, one of whom then became the ruler of the entire country. Some made attempts to transfer power by inheritance, but this was not successful.

Secondly, the role and importance of large feudal lords, princes and other representatives of the nobility increased. There were seven clans that could choose and remove the emperor. This right was given to them by hereditary possessions, on which they relied in making decisions. The strongest families were Habsburgs And Luxembourg. One of the emperors in the middle of the 14th century. managed to carry out a constitutional reform, according to which it was adopted Golden Bull. According to it, a college of electors was created, which included 3 archbishops, the Czech king, the Elector of the Palatinate, the Duke of Saxony and the Margrave of Brandenburg. They had the right to elect the emperor; decide what the vectors of domestic and foreign policy will be; realize the right to internal sovereignty of local princes. As a result, feudal fragmentation was consolidated in the country and papal influence on the election of the emperor was eliminated.

Thirdly, the gradual collapse of the Hohenstaufen domain.

Fourthly, an increase in the number of civil strife that destroyed the internal organization of the empire.

Due to these factors, the Roman state lost almost all its possessions in Italy, as well as French possessions in Burgundy. At the same time, German possessions received a chance to free themselves from the influence of the Pope. This process was accompanied by the withdrawal of imperial and regional possessions, which were previously subject to power Vatican.

Crisis phenomena engulfed the empire from the middle of the 14th century. and lasted until the very end of the 15th century. They manifested themselves in all areas of life:

Population decline due to the plague epidemic;
Strengthening the Hanseatic League of trading cities in the north of the country;
The creation of the Swabian and Rhine military alliances in the south of the empire to fight the emperor’s troops;
The aggravation of problems within the church, resulting in a split in the middle of the Catholic community. Heretical movements, including the Hussite belief, gradually began to penetrate into the country. Gradually, Protestant movements began to appear that actively competed with the Catholic Church;

Collapse of financial and monetary systems;
The formation of regional government apparatuses, because of which the principalities actually left the authority of the emperor. By their nature, these were representative bodies of power, called Landtags. This influenced the formation of the destinies’ own military, judicial and tax systems;

A failed foreign policy that led to protracted wars with the Czech Republic and Hungary.

From 1452, the Habsburgs finally gained a foothold on the throne, ruling the empire until 1806. They contributed to the formation of a representative body that included classes from all over the country. It was named the Reichstag, which soon acquired imperial significance.

The state in the 16th century: attempts at reform

At the end of the 15th century. on the territory of the country there were hundreds of state entities of various forms and methods of dependence. Each of them had its own financial and military systems, and the emperor could no longer influence the princes, because control mechanisms are significantly outdated. Smaller principalities and duchies were still more or less dependent on the central government, while larger ones were absolutely independent. Most often, they used this to expand their possessions, attacking neighboring properties and cities. In 1508 he was elected to the position of emperor Maximilian the First of Habsburg, who decided to hold the Reichstag in the city of Worms. The purpose of the event was to present to all those present a version of a reform aimed at changing the state system of government of the country. After a long discussion, the proposed document was adopted and the empire embarked on the path of reform.

At first Germany was divided into 6 districts, to which 4 were later added. They were governed by an assembly that included representatives of the secular and spiritual nobility (princes), knights from imperial cities, and the population of free settlements. The state entity had one vote in the assembly, which in some cases gave an advantage to the middle class. This was very important for the emperor, who sought his support.

The districts had to decide the following issues:

Engage in military construction;
Organize defense;
Recruit soldiers for the army;
Distribute and collect taxes for the imperial budget.

Was created separately Higher Imperial Court, which has become the most important judicial authority in the country. Through him, the emperor was able to influence the princes and somewhat centralize the state.

Maximilian Success was achieved only in the creation of the court and districts, but attempts to deepen the reform failed.

Firstly, the attempt to organize executive authorities ended in failure. Equally unsuccessful were attempts at a unified army.
Secondly, the estates did not support Maximilian’s foreign policy aspirations, which worsened the situation Holy Roman Empire on the international stage.

Because of this, the emperor is like an archduke Austria, continued his course towards separating his fiefdom. The Duchy no longer contributed taxes to the imperial institutions and did not take part in meetings of the Reichstag. Therefore, Austria found itself outside the empire, and its independence was increased to unlimited proportions. Thus, the emperor's policies were very useful for the duchy, but not for the empire. Transition Germany to the background further aggravated the situation in the state, intensifying the crisis. This was also facilitated by the fact that the emperor refused to be crowned Pope. The ancient tradition of legitimacy of power and rights was violated. From then on, Maximilian enjoyed the title of elected emperor, and his followers were considered rulers after being elected by the college. Attempts at reform continued Charles the Fifth, who was the last emperor crowned by Rome.

His reign had the following characteristic features:

The Reichstag was convened quite rarely, which made it possible to implement various events of Charles;
The support of electors, princes, knights and citizens, creating a new balance of power;
It was forbidden to resolve issues between state entities in the empire using military methods;
A common financial system was created, to which all representatives of the classes made contributions. Sometimes the electors refused to do this so as not to pay for Charles’s expenses on foreign policy campaigns. Most often, they were directed against the Ottoman Empire;
Creation of a unified criminal code.

Thanks to the efforts Maximilian the First And Charles the Fifth an organized legal and government system was created in the country, which was important for competing with other nation states. As a result, the unity and stability of Germany was maintained for a long time, in which old and new political institutions operated in parallel. This hybrid model somewhat hampered the development of the empire, without creating new attributes of power. The dominant position continued to be occupied Habsburgs, which expanded family holdings, created a solid economic base, and secured imperial political influence for the dynasty. They allowed the capital of the country to be moved to Vienna, which shifted the center of political gravity.

Habsburg Empire in the XVII-XVIII centuries.

Foreign policy Holy Roman Empire for several centuries did not bring serious results, so the state lost its leading position in Europe. Despite this, the emperors pursued traditional directions in European politics:

Spain was supported;
An anti-French alliance was created with Holland and England. Germany managed to win the War of Spanish Succession, compensating for losses in Thirty Years' War;

The empire included several Italian possessions, as well as the southern part of the Netherlands;
The creation of an alliance of Austria, Hanover, Poland and the Duchy of Brandenburg against Sweden, which ended in victory for Germany. She received access to the Baltic coast, and the former possessions of Sweden were divided between the German principalities;
The Empire organized a new “crusade” against the Ottomans. Large-scale campaigns were carried out, as a result of which the northern part of the Balkans, Central Europe, and the Transylvanian principalities were liberated.

Military successes contributed to the rapid revival of patriotism among the population, and the exaltation of the status of the emperor, who was now considered a symbol of the unity of the country.

Successes in military campaigns restored the loyalty of the western regions, where centers of support for the crown arose - Mainz, Westphalia, Middle Rhine, Swabia, Palatinate and others. In the south, this center was Bavaria, in the north – Saxony and Hanover.

In the early 1660s. The Reichstag began to be constantly convened again, which made it possible to adopt quite a lot of effective and efficient laws. The emperor was constantly present at the meetings, which allowed him to restore his influence and unite the classes. Integration gradually spread to the regional principalities, where the state apparatus, courts, and troops were created. The army has become an important tool in unifying the state, because participated in campaigns against France and Turkey. The districts took an active part in this, recruiting soldiers, collecting taxes, and forming military bases and contingents throughout the country.

Under such conditions, absolutist tendencies gradually began to emerge, which Leopold the First began to revive. This direction was continued by Joseph the First, who transferred the affairs of the empire to the chancellery in Vienna. The Erzchancellor and his subordinates were practically removed from the executive branch. Individual power was also manifested in foreign policy. Claims began to spread to northern Italy, where Germany started a new conflict. The imperial course was not supported by a number of electors, among which were Prussia, Saxony, Hanover and Bavaria. The central government constantly interfered in their internal affairs, which caused a negative reaction from the principalities. They practically became independent, pursuing their foreign policy in Sweden, Spain, and Italy.

Rise of Prussia

The most acute confrontation arose between Prussia and Austria, which were the most influential entities in the empire. Habsburgs captured Hungary, Italy and the Netherlands, which isolated them from other regions. Due to constant interference in the affairs of other states, internal problems began to worsen and deepen. Their solution was not given due attention, so any attempts to centralize the empire were failed and unsuccessful. Outside the influence of the Habsburgs was Prussia, whose rulers have been pursuing an independent policy in Europe for several centuries. The princes took similar positions among the imperial electors, who were subdued with the help of a strong Prussian army. Thus, rivalry with Austria intensified, and Prussia withdrew from imperial affairs. It had its own legislation, its own norms and rules of conduct for rulers. Due to the absence of Prussian representatives in the Reichstag and the Imperial Court, their work was completely blocked. The systemic crisis that began was intensified by the death of a direct male descendant Habsburgs. After this, the confrontation became an open military struggle. She was distinguished by her participation in the division of the heritage of other principalities, “throne leapfrog”, and attempts to streamline the work of government bodies. At the end of the 1770s. Prussia, which entered into an alliance with Bavaria, opposed the emperor and his entourage. This became the final evidence of the collapse of the Habsburg government, which did not meet the trends of the times and the situation in Europe. Prussia successfully took advantage of the situation, defending the empire and preserving the rights of all entities of the empire.

Decay Holy Roman Empire came gradually under the influence of internal and external factors. The catalyst for all processes was that in 1803 Emperor Franz II accepted the title of ruler of Austria, equating himself with Napoleon Bonaparte. This was not a violation of the state constitution, but the Habsburgs lost the throne. Napoleon immediately began to claim it, having visited the tomb of Charlemagne and the capital of his empire - the city of Aachen.

The final nail in the collapse of the empire was driven by the country's participation in the coalition of states against France. The capital was captured, and on the side Bonaparte Several German principalities spoke out. Austria became the usual periphery of the empire, which quickly became a formality. At the beginning of August 1806, Franz II announced that he was no longer ruler Holy Roman Empire. This was justified by the appearance Confederation of the Rhine and the need to provide principalities, estates, and institutions with broader powers. Thus, the state of a single German nation ceased to exist.

Essay in the academic discipline "History of the World"

on the topic: "The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation."

Plan

1. Introduction.

2. Germany in the period from the beginning of the 16th century to the middle of the 17th century.

3. Second half of the 17th century. Reign of Leopold I.

4. Germany in the 18th century. The struggle for power between Austria and Prussia.

6. Conclusion.

7. List of references.

1. Introduction.

In the 16th century, the Holy Roman Empire became increasingly confined to exclusively German lands. The claims to Italy and Burgundy had to be forgotten forever. However, it still remained one of the leading powers in Europe. Representatives of the House of Habsburg firmly sat on the imperial throne, which inevitably led to the transfer of the political center to Vienna. The Empire had to fight long wars with its main rivals - France and Turkey. Most German princes did not like the dominance of the Habsburg monarchy, which tried to use imperial institutions to achieve purely personal goals. Therefore, the emergence of a strong Prussian kingdom, which became the main defender of the old imperial traditions and orders, was greeted with enthusiasm by many classes and local rulers. But it is the Prussian-Austrian confrontation that will greatly shake the building of the all-German state. The Napoleonic Wars, which began at the end of the 18th century, would lead to the defeat of Austria and the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine, which would mark the end of the empire. It is this period in the history of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation that this abstract work will be devoted to.

2. Germany in the period from the beginning of the 16th century to the middle of the 17th century.

At the beginning of the 16th century, the crown of Germany belonged to Maximilian I of the Habsburg family. At the end of the 15th century, he initiated a reform whose task was to change the rules in public administration. The country was divided into six districts, with four more later added. Local administration was entrusted to the district assembly. The Highest Imperial Court was formed, and legislative functions were transferred to the Reichstag. But the king was not destined to fully implement profound changes in the state; opposition from the German princes stood in his way. The positions of Maximilian I were shaken and he, like his predecessors, concentrated on hereditary possessions. The Austrian duchies became isolated from the political life of the empire, and the interests of Austria became higher than the interests of Germany. In 1508, Maximilian assumed the title of emperor in the northern Italian town of Trento. The next German rulers will already be spared the need to make expeditions to Italy to be anointed to reign by the pope. The very proclamation of the king of Germany will automatically give the title of emperor. Since 1512, the phrase “German nation” will be added to the name of the Holy Roman Empire.

Maximilian's successor in 1519 would be his grandson Charles V, who was not only emperor, but also held the title of King of Spain and Archduke of Austria. He was also the last German monarch to be crowned pontiff in 1530 in Bologna. Vast possessions came under his control, including: Holland, Zealand, Burgundy, Spain, Lombardy, Sardinia, Sicily, Naples, Roussillon, Canaries, West Indies, Austria, Hungary, Bohemia, Moravia, Istria, Tunisia, Luxembourg, Artois, Piacenza , New Granada, New Spain, Peru, the Philippines, etc. He continued the reforms of his grandfather and approved a unified criminal code for the entire state, which was distinguished by the severity of its measures. Shortly before he came to power, the so-called Reformation began in the empire - a religious movement in Europe whose task was to reform the Catholic Church and faith in accordance with the teachings of the Bible, which divided Germany into the Lutheran north and the Catholic south. The new Christian direction - Protestantism, took hold in the principalities: Saxony, Brandenburg, Kurpfalz, Brunswick-Lüneburg, Hesse, Württemberg and in a number of important cities: Strasbourg, Frankfurt, Nuremberg, Hamburg, Lubeck. The electors of the Rhine, Brunswick-Wolfenbüttel, Bavaria, Austria, Lorraine, Augsburg, Salzburg, etc. remained faithful to traditional Catholicism. The religious conflict led to internal tension in the German lands. The impossibility of resolving the confessional schism at the Augsburg Reichstag in 1530 ended with the formation of two unions - the Protestant Schmalkalden and the Catholic Nuremberg. Their confrontation led to the Schmalkalden War of 1546-1547, which was won by Charles V. But, nevertheless, already in 1555 the Augsburg religious peace was concluded, which legitimized Lutheranism and made it an alternative to Catholicism. This agreement made it possible to maintain political unity in the state.

Other internal upheavals include the popular uprising in 1524-1526, which developed into the Peasants' War. The causes of the conflict were the increased tax burden, the expansion of the “master's” rights and the freethinking that spread during the Reformation. The villagers were joined by some townspeople, and even the aristocracy, who had their own religious and economic motives. The unrest affected mainly the southern, central and western regions. Several hundred thousand people took part in them. They ended in the defeat of the rebels due to their weak organization and the betrayal of the burghers. In addition to internal conflicts, the empire was in confrontation with France and the Ottoman Empire.

In 1556, Charles V abdicated the crown, as a result of which Spain, Flanders and Italy passed to his son Philip II, and the German lands went to Ferdinand I. The new emperor adhered to religious tolerance and religious peace. In the second half of the 16th century, an economic recession began in Germany. It was caused by a number of reasons, the main of which were the Great Geographical Discoveries, which led to the shift of trade routes to the Atlantic and the decline of the Hanseatic League, which was squeezed out of the Baltic by Holland. German manufactories, which were losing out to European competition and the once thriving mining industry, found themselves in a crisis. Of course, the bloody Peasant War also had its effect. Ferdinand I's successor, Maximilian II, was loyal to Lutheranism. And during the years of his reign (1564-1576), relying on princes who were in different religious camps, he managed to maintain peace and order in the empire. At the end of the 16th - beginning of the 17th centuries. In Germany, three Christian movements took shape - Catholicism, Lutheranism and Calvinism. This historical segment was called the “Confessional Era.”

However, the time of peace and stability was coming to an end. The Catholic Church, having lost its previous positions, longed to regain them. The Counter-Reformation, which began in the mid-16th century, began to gain momentum a few decades later. This confrontation again led to the creation of two unions - the Evangelical Union in 1608 and the Catholic League in 1609. The religious conflict paralyzed the work of the Reichstag and the Trial Chamber. The reigning Emperor Rudolf II found himself in a difficult situation; as a result, a rebellion broke out against him, leading to the overthrow and rise to power of his brother Matthias. The new emperor had no children, and under pressure from representatives of the House of Habsburg, he was forced to proclaim his cousin Ferdinand king of the Czech Republic and Hungary, making him his successor. The Habsburgs began to pursue a policy of persecuting Protestants and eliminating the rights given to them by Rudolf II. As a result, the Czech Uprising broke out against re-Catholicization and became the prologue to the Thirty Years' War, which began in 1618 and lasted until 1648. It was a conflict that began with religious clashes and developed into a struggle for hegemony in the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation and Europe. Austria, the Catholic principalities of Germany, Spain, Portugal, the Papal Throne and Poland took the side of the Habsburgs. In the camp of the anti-Habsburg coalition were: France, Sweden, Denmark, the Protestant principalities of Germany, the Czech Republic, Transylvania, Venice, Savoy, the Republic of the United Provinces, and Great Britain and Russia provided assistance. At the initial stage, luck favored the emperor, who defeated the main forces of the Protestants. In the second stage of the war, imperial troops invaded the Netherlands and Denmark. The only country that could stop Catholic expansion was Sweden. She managed to defeat the armies of the Catholic League, but already in 1634 she was defeated at Nördlingen. In 1635, the Peace of Prague was signed, ending the Swedish stage of the war. In the same year, France entered the conflict, attacking and defeating Swabia, Brandenburg, Saxony and Bavaria. In 1648, the Peace of Westphalia was concluded, according to which Switzerland gained independence, Southern Alsace and Lorraine passed to France, Sweden received the island of Rügen, Western Pomerania, and the Duchy of Bremen. Supporters of Catholicism, Lutheranism, and Calvinism gained equal rights in the empire. The German principalities acquired the status of a subject in international relations, which laid the foundation for the future of German federalism.

3. Second half of the 17th century. Reign of Leopold I.

The lost Thirty Years' War greatly undermined the position of the Holy Roman Empire. France was now the leading European power. In 1658, after the death of Ferdinand III, Leopold I took the imperial throne. He was born in 1640, was raised by Jesuits and was supposed to devote his life to serving God in the future. But the premature death of his brother Ferdinand IV in 1654 made him heir to the Austrian possessions, after which he became king of Hungary and the Czech Republic. And a few years later, despite the intrigues and behind-the-scenes struggle of the French monarch Louis XIV, he was proclaimed German emperor. He was short, thin and in poor health, a very pious, cold-blooded and secretive person. Spiritual education left its mark on his character and prevented him from acquiring the necessary qualities to govern the country. Under him, much attention was paid to various sciences, art and music, and universities were opened in Innsbruck, Olmutz and Breslau. In 1665, the emperor acquired the County of Tyrol and bought from Poland the principalities of Oppeln and Ratibor, left as collateral by his father.

Leopold had little interest in state and military affairs, placing them on the shoulders of advisers and ministers. He tried to adhere to a peaceful policy, but the situation in Europe inevitably led to a big war. His main rivals were France and the Ottoman Empire. The Emperor supported Spain, and also sought an alliance with the British and Dutch in the future to oppose the French. In 1660, a war with Turkey began, ending with a truce in 1664, which lasted almost twenty years. The Ottomans retained Grosswardein and Neugeisel. In 1672 the Dutch War broke out. Louis almost defeated the Dutch, but then Leopold intervened. The imperial army acted uncertainly, and as a result the enemy occupied Alsace and the Palatinate. In 1679, a peace treaty was signed, according to which Freiburg ceded to the French. However, already in 1681, France captured Strasbourg, Leopold was busy with another war with the Hungarians and Turks, so he was unable to respond. Hungary lost its previous liberties, which led to a popular uprising. The emperor was forced to make concessions, return old rights and stop persecuting Protestants. While internal strife was taking place, the Ottomans occupied a number of fortresses and in 1683 approached the walls of Vienna itself. Frightened, Leopold left the city and headed to Linz. The defense was entrusted to the Duke of Lorraine Charles. The Turks outnumbered the defenders twentyfold. The siege lasted two months and ended in defeat for the Ottomans. The Poles who came to the aid of the besieged played a decisive role in the battle. The Turks lost fifteen thousand killed and retreated. In 1684, the Ottomans were again defeated at Vaktsen. Pest was taken, and two years later Buda. In 1687, the Turks were defeated at Mogach.

While the conflict with the Porte continued, a second war with France broke out (the War of the League of Augsburg) in 1688. Louis invaded the Austrian Netherlands. England, Holland, Spain, and Savoy took the side of the empire. At the initial stage, Leopold suffered defeat after defeat. In 1690 it was defeated at Flerous. But France was exhausted physically and financially by this long conflict, which forced it to make peace. In 1697, in Rysvik, an agreement was reached that stopped hostilities. Philippsburg and Lorraine were returned to the Holy Roman Empire, Paris retained only Strasbourg. In the same year, Prince Eugene of Savoy defeated the Ottoman troops at Zenta. The Peace of Karlowitz, concluded in 1699, forced the Turks to make concessions and transfer Hungarian territories to Austria.

A new clash between the empire and France was not long in coming. The last of the Spanish Habsburgs, the sickly Charles II, had no heirs. He had two sisters, one of whom was married to Louis XIV, and the other married to Leopold I. On his deathbed, Charles bequeathed the Spanish throne to the grandson of the French monarch Philippe d'Orléans, which the German emperor could not accept. His claims were supported by almost all the kings of Europe. The War of the Spanish Succession began in 1701. This conflict became a kind of revenge for the Habsburgs for their failure in the Thirty Years' War. Paris' dominance in Western Europe was over. The Southern Netherlands, Naples and Milan came under the control of the Habsburgs, and mutually beneficial cooperation developed with Poland, Hanover and Brandenburg, which made it possible to contain the onslaught of Sweden in Northern Europe. Under Leopold, the influence of the Porte in the Balkans weakened. Hungary, Transylvania and the northern part of Serbia were taken from the Turks and became part of the Habsburg Monarchy. Victories over the French and Ottomans again raised the authority of the German Empire and the patriotism of the German people. The emperor himself, who had a meek and peaceful character, but was forced to wage incessant wars, did not live to see the end of the third, most successful, campaign against France. He died in 1705, exhausted by a long illness.

4. Germany in the 18th century. The struggle for power between Austria and Prussia.

The Holy Roman Empire was never a monolithic state entity, neither in the ethnic nor in the political sense. The eternal struggle of the monarch with the princes and the pope only confirmed this, bringing internal instability. Starting from the end of the 17th century, two centers of influence appeared in the country, so similar and so different at the same time - Austria and Prussia. The Habsburgs subjugated Hungary and gained lands in Italy and Holland. Representatives of this family occupied the throne of the emperor, which did not prevent them, however, from separating themselves from the German state. Their interests shifted from Central Europe to its southeastern part. Back in 1618, the Duchy of Prussia went to the Electorate of Brandenburg, and after the Peace of Westphalia it received a number of more lands. As a result, most of the territories controlled by the Prussian monarch found themselves outside the borders of the empire, which allowed Prussia to position itself as an independent power. The rise of Prussia was possible thanks to the successful domestic policy of Frederick I and Frederick William I, who created a reliable bureaucratic system of government and a combat-ready army. This helped Prussia take a leading position among the German states, which displeased Austria. Prussia isolated itself on its own problems and withdrew from participation in imperial affairs. Its troops did not participate in campaigns initiated by the empire and did not comply with some of its laws and regulations, which inevitably led to a crisis in the Holy Roman Empire.

After Charles VI died in 1740 and the direct male line of the Habsburg dynasty was cut off, the Austro-Prussian rivalry escalated into open armed conflict - the Silesian Wars of 1740-1745, between the Prussian monarch Frederick II and the Austrian Archduchess Maria Theresa. The Prussian military machine was too much for Austria, which was ultimately defeated and lost Silesia. In parallel, Vienna had to wage a war for the Austrian succession, against France and Bavaria, which aggravated its already difficult situation. And in 1742, for the first time in three centuries, a representative of the House of Habsburg ascended to the throne of the empire. The new German ruler was Karl Albrecht, Elector of Bavaria from the Wittelsbach dynasty, on his father's side. This was a new blow for Austria. But after the death of Charles VII, the German crown again passed to the Habsburgs. Maria Theresa's husband, Francis I of Lorraine, having acquired the throne, tried to revive the imperial institutions of power and structure, while placing them at the service of Austrian interests and goals. This caused serious opposition among the German princes, led by Prussia. Eventually, Franz I was forced to abandon his absolutist ambitions.

In 1756, the Seven Years' War broke out between Prussia on the one hand and Austria in alliance with Russia and France on the other. Under pressure from Paris, a number of German states nevertheless declared war on Frederick II, but this did not affect the balance of power and the outcome of the conflict. Moreover, closer to the end of the war, the principalities unilaterally began to sign a separate peace with Berlin. Small German states began to escape the control of Austria, which was once again confirmed during the War of the Bavarian Succession in 1778-1779, when they acted as a united front with Prussia against the consolidation of Bavarian lands to the House of Habsburg. The imperial throne was losing its strength and attractiveness, any attempts by Austria to transform the empire and bring its bureaucratic experience into it encountered opposition from the German princes and classes, who did not want the strengthening of central power and advocated maintaining the previous order. Prussia successfully used this to raise its authority. In 1785, Frederick II initiated the formation of a union of German princes, as opposed to the structures and bodies under the control of Austria. After the death of Frederick II and with the accession of his nephew Frederick Wilhelm II to the Prussian throne, Berlin and Vienna, despite all the contradictions, will be together in the anti-French coalition. However, this will no longer save the situation in the Holy Roman Empire, the functioning of which was completely undermined by the Austro-Prussian confrontation.

5. The end of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation.

The Austro-Prussian confrontation excluded other small German states from general political life, whose rulers began to show indifference to the empire. In such conditions, it became impossible to carry out any reform so necessary for the preservation of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation. The French Revolution, which began at the end of the 18th century, temporarily united the Germans in a single alliance against Paris. Austria and Prussia found themselves in the same camp, concluding the Reichenbach Alliance in 1790. In 1793, the Reichstag declared war on France. But the Habsburgs had their own selfish interests; they decided to expand their possessions at the expense of other German lands. Prussia also harbored similar plans.

The French acted decisively: they occupied the left bank of the Rhine and the Austrian Netherlands, and having captured Frankfurt, they plundered it and, as a result of a strong fire, practically destroyed it. All subjects of the empire were reluctant to send their troops to the imperial army and sought to limit themselves to the defense of their own lands. Each principality wanted to end the conflict as quickly as possible and make peace with the French. Therefore, already in 1794, the anti-French coalition began to lose its members. A year later, Prussia withdrew from the war, followed by the northern German principalities, followed in 1796 by Baden and Württemberg. Only Austria continued to resist. In 1797, Napoleon's troops invaded the Italian possessions of Vienna. In the spring of the same year, the parties signed the Peace of Campoformia, according to which Belgium and Lombardy were transferred to France. Austria received the continental territories of Venice and the opportunity to add lands to southeastern Germany.

In 1799, a new war of the Second Coalition began, in which Austria tried to get even with France for previous defeats, but was again defeated. The Peace of Luneville assigned to Paris the territories of the left bank of the Rhine, including the possessions of Cologne, Mainz and Trier. Further, under pressure from France and Russia, Emperor Francis II agreed to the reorganization of the empire. Church holdings in German lands were transferred to secular states. Almost all imperial cities lost their status as subjects of imperial law. In total, more than a hundred state entities that existed within the borders of the Holy Roman Empire were liquidated. Baden, Württemberg, Bavaria, and Prussia benefited the most after the reform. They received additional population and lands. As a result, in 1804, within the framework of the empire, there were almost one hundred and thirty states and principalities, not including the possessions controlled by the knights. After these transformations, the balance of power in the Reichstag and the College of Electors changed. Electoral rights passed to Baden, Württemberg, Hesse-Kassel and the Archchancellor of the Empire, Karl-Theodor von Dahlberg. In the College of Electors and in the Chamber of Princes of the Imperial Reichstag, a Protestant majority was formed that had pro-French sentiments. The abolition of free cities and church estates, which for centuries had been the support and foundation of the empire, led to the loss of stability and real power of the emperor. The Holy Roman Empire simply became a conglomerate of independent states, having lost its political unity.

In 1805, the War of the Third Coalition broke out. The weakened troops of Franz II were defeated at the Battle of Austerlitz, and Vienna was occupied by Bonaparte. In this conflict, Baden, Bavaria and Württemberg took the side of the French. The crushed emperor signed the Peace of Presburg with Paris, according to which he ceded the territories of Italy, Tyrol, Vorarlberg and Western Austria to the enemy, and also agreed to recognize the titles of monarchs for the rulers of Bavaria and Württemberg, which automatically removed these powers from the control of Franz II and meant the recognition of their independence . All that was left of the empire was a semblance. In 1806, Bavaria, Württemberg, Baden, Hesse-Darmstadt, Nassau, Berg, Archchancellor Dahlberg and eight other small German principalities entered into an agreement in Paris that ordered the creation of the Confederation of the Rhine under the auspices of Bonaparte. They further announced their decision to leave the Holy Roman Empire to the German nation. Francis II had no choice but to leave the imperial crown, which brought the final line under the existence of the empire.

6. Conclusion.

We looked at the history of the Holy Roman Empire of the German nation, from the 16th century until its dissolution in 1806. The Empire was never a monolithic state entity, which is reflected in the constant internal struggle of the monarch with the princes and the Vatican. Nevertheless, she occupied an important place in European affairs. Gradually, the status of the leading power passed to France, which, along with the Ottomans, would become the main enemy of Germany. And the Habsburgs, who seized power in the empire for a long time, increasingly paid attention not to all-German interests, but to their own. A new power that emerged in the form of Prussia came into conflict with Austria for influence over German lands. This rivalry greatly weakened the empire, which was not ready for wars with Napoleon. As a result, lost battles and lost territories led to the fact that a number of German states decided to secede from the empire. Francis II, in such conditions could no longer fulfill the duties assigned to him, renounced the imperial crown. All these steps turned the empire into a fiction and led to its final collapse in 1806.

7. List of references.

1. The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation / Francis Rapp - Publisher: Eurasia, 2009. - 420 p.

2. History of Germany. Volume 2. From the creation of the German Empire to the beginning of the 21st century / Bernd Bonwech - Publisher: KDU Publishing House, 2008. - 644 p.

3. History of Germany / Andre Maurois - Publisher: Azbuka-Atticus, 2017. - 320 p.

4. A Brief History of Germany / James Howes - Publisher: Azbuka-Atticus, 2017. - 370 p.

5. German history. Through the thorns of two millennia / Alexander Patrushev - Publishing house: Publishing House of the International University in Moscow, 2007. - 708 p.

6. Holy Roman Empire. The era of formation / M. Bulst-Thiele, K. Jordan, J. Fleckenstein - Publisher: Eurasia, 2008. - 480 p.

Sacrum Imperium Romanum Nationis Teutonicae (lat.),
Heiliges Römisches Reich Deutscher Nation (German)

The Holy Roman Empire of the German nation is a remarkable political institution that has retained the same form and the same claims for ten centuries (800 - 1806). The external history of the empire is, in essence, the history of Germany from the 9th to the 19th centuries and Italy in the Middle Ages. By its origin, the S. Roman Empire was ecclesiastical and Germanic; its form was given by the unfading tradition of the universal dominion of eternal Rome; Germanic and Roman elements, merging, determined the comprehensive and abstract nature of the empire, as the center and head of the Western Christian world. The beginning of the Holy Roman Empire dates back to 800, when he was crowned Roman Emperor. This event was prepared in advance, but Charles did not think about the separation of Rome from Constantinople: until the year 800, the legal heir of the Roman Empire was Byzantium, the empire renewed by Charles was a continuation of the ancient Roman Empire, and Charles was considered the 68th emperor, the successor of the eastern line immediately after deposed in 797, and not by a successor. The event of 800 was the result of an agreement between the pope, ecclesiastical and secular dignitaries and the king. Charles actually owned the empire; he ruled in Rome, the capital of the empire (matrona imperii), and was the protector of the church. But the Roman Empire was considered one, indivisible; The coronation of Charles, without proclaiming the separation of the West from the East, declared Rome the capital of both political and ecclesiastical. Charles's power was sanctified by the coronation, but not increased. The imperial title changed Charles' position and surrounded him with special splendor; Since then, all of Karl’s activities have revolved around theocratic ideas.

The secondary restoration of the empire was carried out by Otto the Great. Despite the previous turmoil, Rome seemed to be the “golden city” (aurea Roma), its fate the fate of the whole world. “As long as the Colosseum is intact, Rome will live; when the Colosseum falls, Rome will fall, and when Rome falls, the whole world will fall” - this was the idea of ​​contemporaries about the greatness of the ancient empire. On February 2, 962, Otto aroused general enthusiasm by being crowned “Emperor Augustus.” In the mind of a medieval man, to whom antiquity bequeathed the idea of ​​a world monarchy, there was a deep conviction in the necessary connection between the Roman Empire and the Catholic Church. The position of the emperor and his functions were determined by comparing the imperial power with the papal power. He is imperator terrenus, that is, God's deputy on earth in secular affairs, and “patronus,” that is, protector of the church; his power in everything corresponds to the power of the pope, the relationship between them is similar to the relationship between soul and body. “Just as in heaven,” said Emperor Frederick I, “there is only one God, so on earth there is only one pope and one emperor.” The coronation ceremony and official titles of the emperor indicate a desire to give the imperial power a divine character. The emperor was considered the representative of all Christians. He is the “head of Christendom,” the “secular head of the faithful,” the “patron of Palestine and the Catholic faith,” superior in dignity to all kings. Before their coronation in Rome, emperors from the 11th to the 16th centuries. bore the title "Romanorum rex semper Augustus", and after the coronation - "Romanorum Imperator semper Augustus". In 962, the beginning was made of combining two titles in one person - the Roman Emperor and the German King. At first this connection was purely personal, then it became official and real. Empire of the 10th century was, however, essentially a feudal monarchy. Having adopted the idea of ​​their power from the ancient world, the emperors thought to implement it in a feudal way; imperial power gradually became feudalized.

In Rome, Otto was only an emperor, not a king; he was in charge of the apostolic see (the deposition of John XII), led the debates of the synod, looked at the pope as his creature, but could not firmly establish himself in the capital, in fact he had no power here, like his successors. Byzantium did not recognize the rude “Frank” as emperor. In France, the claims of the emperors were also not recognized. As part of the empire X - XI centuries. included Germany proper, most (2/3) of Italy, Burgundy, Bohemia, Moravia, Poland, Denmark, and partly Hungary. The successors of Otto I, pursuing chimerical goals, met resistance in everything from the papacy, feudalism and national isolation. Otto III (983 - 1002) was completely immersed in the idea of ​​a worldwide Roman Empire, turned away from his fellow tribesmen, considered himself a Roman, and dreamed of establishing Rome at the head of Germany, Lombardy and Greece. The empire reached significant strength under Henry III (1039 - 1056) of Franconia, who took advantage of the moment when papal power had not yet become stronger. He was the complete master of Italy, freely controlled the fate of the papal throne, but caused a terrible reaction that destroyed his successor. The struggle between Henry IV and Gregory VII dealt the first and heaviest blow to the empire, significantly reducing its charm and instilling in Italy, together with the German princes, confidence in their forces. The Concordat of Worms of 1122 left the battlefield to the pope. After the death of Henry V (1124), the jurisdiction of the crown became significantly smaller: the independence of princes and barons was recognized.

Brilliant representatives of the idea of ​​imperial power were in the second half of the 12th and first half of the 13th centuries. Hohenstaufens. Among them, the first place belongs to Frederick I (1152 - 1189), in whose person the imperial power opposed the pope with theoretical arguments. Frederick considered his power to depend directly on God and as sacred as the papal power. Bolognese jurists argued that the right to establish laws belongs to the emperor, whose will is the law, for it is written: “quod principi placuit legis habet vigorem, quum populus ei et in eum omne suum imperi um et polestatem concesserit.” However, Frederick I was the true ruler only in Germany. The empire at that time included the north. part of Italy and the Kingdom of Burgundy, i.e. Provence, Dauphine, Franche-Comté, Switzerland, Lorraine, Alsace and part of Flanders. Bohemia and the Slavic lands in Mecklenburg and Pomerania depended on the empire. Byzantium, as before, harbored enmity towards the emperors, considering them usurpers and barbarians, insultingly distorting the titles of emperors: thus, Isaac the Angel called Frederick I “the chief prince of Alemannia.”

Emperors were crowned with four crowns: the crown in Aachen made the monarch “king of the Franks”, and from the time of Henry II - “king of the Romans”, the coronation in Milan - the king of Italy, in Rome he received the double crown “lirbis et orbis”, and Frederick I, under the end of his life, he also accepted the fourth crown - the Burgundian crown (regnum Burgundiae or regnum Arelatcase). When crowned in Milan and Aachen, the emperors did not call themselves kings of the Lombards and Franks, since these titles were lost in comparison with the title of emperor. The imperial title was accepted only after the coronation in Rome, and this created an extremely important basis for the claims of the pope, from whose hands the crown was transferred. Frederick I added the epithet “Sacred” to the name “Roman Empire,” which did not add anything new to the actual power of the emperor, but indicated its divine origin. Together with the Hohenstaufens, the idea of ​​imperial power went to the grave. In Germany, imperial power collapsed due to the establishment of the territorial independence of the princes (the era of the great interregnum).

A new period in the history of the Northern Empire begins with the time of Rudolf of Habsburg (1273). By the 14th century The Holy Empire is, in essence, the German Empire. The power of the emperor was recognized only in Germany, and even then only theoretically, since in reality it passed into the hands of the feudal lords. Emperors of the 14th century they are not embarrassed by anything in pursuing their dynastic interests and multiplying their family possessions. From the magnificent title of the Holy Roman Empire, only one name remained: the princes plundered all the lands and divided among themselves the attributes of imperial power, leaving the emperor with honorary rights and considering him their fief master. The emperors of this era mortgage crowns, cities, live at the expense of others, endure every humiliation before the pope, but continue to call themselves heirs of the Caesars, heads of Christianity and rulers of the world, sacrificing everything for form and appearance.

Charles IV promises the pope not to stay in Rome for more than one day and receives the crown from the pope as a gift. Sigismund (1410 - 1437) loved to live at the expense of imperial cities and willingly visited places where he was treated. Imperial power reached a particular humiliation under Frederick III (1440 - 1493), who insisted on A. E. I. O. U. (Austriae est imperare orbi universo) - and fed on monasteries and imperial cities. His role in relation to Dad made him pathetic in everyone's eyes. After Frederick III, no emperor was crowned in Rome.

During the interregnum, the empire lost part of its territory: Poland overthrew the yoke of Germany, the Hungarians brutally devastated the eastern border of the empire. After Henry VII (1308 - 13) the power of the emperors over Italy ended; in 1350 and 1457 Dauphiné passed to France, and in 1486 Provence. Switzerland also ceased to be dependent on the empire (treaty of 1499). Added to this was the internal weakness of the empire, as an aggregate of constantly warring small states. The Habsburg dynasty seeks to merge the empire with the Austrian monarchy. During the reign of Charles V (1519 - 1555), imperial power increased significantly, but an attempt to return it to its former significance met with opposition from both German princes and other states. The Reformation destroyed the theory on which the empire was based.

The last period of the existence of the Holy Empire is the saddest (1648 - 1806). The Peace of Westphalia deprived the emperor of any possibility of direct intervention in the administration. The Holy Empire becomes exclusively the German Empire, a fragile confederation, the existence of which gradually loses all meaning. The "hereditary enemy of the Holy Empire" was Louis XIV. In the 18th century the existence of the empire was almost forgotten: only high-profile titles remained. The whole spirit of the 18th century. contradicted the idea of ​​the Holy Empire. The revolution, having destroyed feudalism, shook the old medieval building to its foundations. The Rastatt Congress (1797 - 98) fully revealed the internal disintegration of the Holy Empire, which had always suffered from a lack of national unity and political freedom. The last Emperor of the Holy Empire was Franz II (1792 - 1806). At this time, the destinies of Europe were controlled by Napoleon, who considered himself the true successor of Charlemagne and was carried away by the idea of ​​a “world monarchy”; in March 1805 he was crowned in Milan with an iron crown. After the Peace of Presburg (December 26, 1805), Francis II renounced the rank of emperor: as early as 1804, he began to call himself “hereditary emperor of Austria.” This was the end of the Holy Roman Empire.

Under the Saxon and Franconian emperors, the imperial throne was elective. Every Christian (i.e. Catholic) could be an emperor, although usually a member of one of the powerful princely families in Germany was chosen as emperor. So reigned, after Conrad of Franconia, the Saxon dynasty (919 - 1024), the Franconian (1024 - 1125), after Lothair of Supplemburg (1125 - 1138) - the Hohenstaufens (1138 - 1250), the Habsburgs (1273 - 1291 and 1298 - 1308), the Luxembourg house (1308 - 1313 and 1346 - 1437), from 1438 - again Habsburgs. The electors elected the emperor. Their independence was legitimized by the golden bull. This order lasted until the 30-year war.

Emperors

Restoration of the Holy Roman Empire in the 10th century

Germany at the beginning of the 10th century. In 911, the Carolingian dynasty ended in Germany. With the weakness of royal power, Germany experienced difficult times at the end of the 9th and beginning of the 10th centuries. Dangers threatened both outside and inside the state. External enemies in the person of the Magyars, Slavs, and Danes disturbed the borders and border areas. Within the state, the dukes who stood at the head of individual tribes, the so-called tribal dukes, were dangerous for royal power. During the strong power of Charlemagne, these dukes and regional rulers - counts were completely dependent on him; Karl appointed them and, when he wanted, removed them. But after him the empire fell apart; royal power in some parts of it weakened. The rulers of various regions took advantage of this, began to behave more and more independently of the king, and eventually began to pass on the regions in which they ruled by inheritance to their children. Due to the above-mentioned weakening of royal power, as well as due to the strong danger from attacks from external enemies, to repel which strong power was required, by the beginning of the 10th century the dukes, who stood at the head of individual large tribes, especially strengthened; the last were: the Saxons in the north between the Ems and Elbe rivers, the East Franks to the south of them, along the middle Rhine and Main, the Allemans or Swabians, even further south along the upper Danube, the Bavarians to the east of them along the upper Danube and its tributaries.

After the death of Louis the Child, the last Carolingian in Germany, the Duke of the Franks was elected to the German throne Conrad I, relative of the Carolingians. After several years of unsuccessful struggle with the dukes, having lost almost all power, Conrad died. Before his death, having no children, he designated as his heir Henry, Duke of Saxony, who during his lifetime fought especially stubbornly against him. Energetic Henry,

It seemed to him that he was the only person who could at least somewhat improve German affairs.

Henry I, often called the Birdcatcher in history, he discovered the Saxon dynasty, which ruled from 919 to 1024. The nickname “Birdcatcher” first appeared only in the middle of the 12th century and is based on an unreliable story that the news of Henry’s election as king found him while he was catching birds. Having become king, Henry I was unable to restore strong power in Germany. In his relations with the tribal dukes, he did not hope for success in the fight against them and left them alone; they continued to be almost independent rulers from the king. Paying more attention to his Saxony than to Germany in general, he actively and not without success fought the Magyars, Slavs and Danes.

At the beginning of his reign, Henry did not have enough strength to openly fight the Magyars. But he managed to capture one noble Magyar leader. Taking advantage of this circumstance, he obtained from the Magyars a truce for nine years with the obligation to pay them a certain tribute annually. Henry made the most of the time of the truce. He understood that to succeed in the fight against the Magyars he needed fortified points and a good army. Therefore, during the years of the truce, he founded many fortified centers, surrounded many cities with walls and reformed the army; the latter, until that time, was predominantly infantry. Henry also created a strong cavalry. All these events concerned his ancestral region of Saxony. The Magyars, who came after nine years for tribute, were refused and made the usual invasion, but were defeated. Henry I's system bore fruit and made the final fight against the Magyars easier for his successor Otto I.

Otto I. The most outstanding and powerful sovereign of the Saxon dynasty was the son of Henry I Otto I, nicknamed the Great (936-973). The tribal dukes, thinking that he would follow the example of his father in relation to them, that is, leave them independence, unanimously recognized him as king. But they soon became convinced that their calculations were wrong. Otto, wishing to limit the power of the tribal dukes, had to enter into a stubborn struggle with them, from which he emerged victorious. He appointed his relatives as dukes at the head of all the main tribes and thus gained influence throughout his entire state.

The relationship of Otto I to the German church is interesting. Keeping for some time quite far from the church and the clergy, he little by little began to draw closer to the bishops.

The church in his time was greatly oppressed by powerful secular feudal lords, who often took possession of church lands. Otto decided to come out in defense of the clergy and began to show him great favors. He endowed bishops with vast lands, gave them the right to have a market in their bishopric, collect customs duties, and even mint coins. Bishops gradually turned into secular rulers, for whom religion and religious interests often took second place; in case of war, bishops had to deliver a certain number of soldiers to the king. By enriching the bishops in this way, Otto, of course, wanted them to be dependent on him and support him in case of need. To do this, he himself appointed persons known to him as bishops and gave them land. Because of this, the bishops stood on the side of the king during his struggle with strong feudal lords and helped him gain the upper hand over them. Such a predominant influence of royal power on the appointment of bishops in Germany and on the allocation of land to them should not have pleased the pope, who saw this as a violation of his rights; the latter circumstance led to the famous struggle between the emperor and the pope in the 9th century for investiture, which at that time was the name given to the right of a king or emperor to appoint to spiritual positions and, upon appointment, to transfer ownership of land (flax) to that person. Thus, the clergyman, thanks to the endowment of land, involuntarily became a person very interested in secular, worldly affairs.

While pursuing such an energetic policy within the state, Otto also worked hard to secure its borders, especially in the southeast, where the Magyars made their devastating invasions. Otto in 955 inflicted a brutal defeat on them on the river. Lehe, near Augsburg, and finally drove them out of the borders of his state, after which the Magyars no longer bothered him. With this battle, Otto saved not only Germany, but also Europe from the invasions of the wild Magyars, who were still in paganism."

Restoration of the Holy Roman Empire. Otto's relationship with Italy is very important for the history of Germany. After the Treaty of Verdun, unrest and unrest within Italy did not stop; external enemies - the Byzantine Greeks, Magyars and Saracens (Arabs) - also subjected it to devastation. There was no firm power there in the 10th century. During Otto I, Berengar of Hebrews, taking advantage of the situation,

“Prince Istvan (Stephen) I the Great, the first king of Hungary (since 1000), adopted Christianity in 997. He belonged to the Arpad dynasty.

actions, forced him to proclaim himself the king of Italy; He kept the widow of the real king of Italy, Adelheid, in prison. Adelheide managed to turn to Otto I for help. The latter, realizing what benefits he would be able to derive from the Italian campaign, quickly came to Italy, conquered northern Italy, took the title of king of the Lombards and married Adelheide, who was freed from captivity, which he seemed to support their rights to Italy.

A few years later, when the outbreak of Berengar's uprising began to threaten Italy and Rome itself, Pope John XII and the Roman nobility turned for help to Otto, who, without meeting resistance from Berengar, went to Rome, where in 962 the pope entrusted him with imperial crown. After this, the pope recognized himself as a vassal of the emperor, and the people of Rome vowed never to elect popes again without the consent of Otgon or his son. The unrest that arose in Rome gave Otto the opportunity to immediately show his new power: he deposed and appointed several popes at his own discretion.

The event of 962 became known in history as the Restoration of the Roman Empire; later they began to call it "The Restoration of the Holy Roman Empire" and "The Restoration of the Roman Empire of the German Nation." So, the German sovereign also became the Italian sovereign.

The coronation of Otto I with the imperial crown in Rome made a great impression on his contemporaries and raised his importance both in Germany and Italy. It cannot be said that the event of 962 had good consequences for the future of Germany, since many of the subsequent sovereigns, being interested mainly in Italian affairs, neglected the affairs of Germany and handed it over to the power of dukes, princes, bishops, etc., which had a disastrous effect on everyone aspects of German life. The German emperors, having become sovereigns of northern and central Italy, faced new enemies, namely the Arabs, who at that time owned Sicily and carried out attacks on Italy, the Byzantine Greeks, to whom southern Italy belonged, and somewhat later - the Normans. The emperors had to defend Italy against the Arabs. As for southern Italy, Otto planned to annex it to his Italian possessions, and for this he arranged the marriage of his son, also Otto, with the Byzantine princess Theophano.

After the death of Otto I, his son Otto II ruled for ten years, who from his marriage to Theophano had a son and his successor Otto III, a student of the most learned man of that time, Herbert, the future Pope Sylvester II. Otto III was completely captivated by the idea of ​​restoring the Roman Empire, centered in Rome, but, of course, an empire in a Christian spirit. All His concerns were directed towards Italy. Germany was almost forgotten by him. But he did not have time to achieve any definite results, since he unexpectedly died at twenty-two years of age.

Gregory Vil and Henry IV

Decline of the papacy after Nicholas I. Coronation of Otto I with the imperial crown in Rome created a new relationship between the pope and the German sovereign: the pope became dependent on the latter.

After the death of Pope Nicholas I, the papacy, which he had elevated to great heights, experienced a period of complete decline; The end of the 9th and 10th centuries is the saddest time for its existence. The popes, who had become secular sovereigns since the time of Pepin the Short, forgot about their spiritual duties, led a completely secular lifestyle with all its pleasures and entertainments and, like secular nobles, owned numerous vassals. Other representatives of the church led the same life, for example. bishops, abbots, priests. The so-called feudalization of the church took place, that is, the penetration and predominance among the clergy of those customs and mores that prevailed among secular feudal society. In the church, especially among monasticism, in monasteries, the former ascetic direction, which was understood as a life removed from worldly interests, dedicated to God and marked by abstinence, fasting and prayer, has disappeared. This was completely forgotten. Such a contradiction between what the church with the pope at its head should have been and what it actually was outraged and amazed many believers.

This is not enough. The popes at the end of the 9th century and in the 10th century were completely dependent on the Roman nobility, which, dividing into parties and constantly quarreling among themselves, elevated people to the papal throne and demoted them from it not according to their merits or demerits, but therefore, whether there was a given a person is convenient or inconvenient for the dominant party. At this time, the papacy became a mere toy in the hands of the willful Roman nobility. From Nicholas I to John XII, a contemporary of Otto I, that is, over the course of 98 years, there were twenty-five popes, many of whom ruled for several months or for one, two, three years; and changes of popes were especially frequent at the end of the 9th and beginning of the 10th centuries. Once a boy of ten or twelve years old was even elevated to the papal throne.

This situation could not continue indefinitely. Outrage grew among true believers. Then the idea arose about transforming the church, about returning it to those original times, when representatives of the church really pursued only spiritual religious goals and faithfully confessed the word of God. But in this desire to transform the church in general, and the papacy in particular, there was not only a religious side, but also a political one. The last task was undertaken by the German sovereigns, who wanted to free the popes from the hands of the Roman nobility, which had such a disastrous influence on their election. Otto I managed to do this. Since then, the popes have received in the German sovereign a defender against the Roman nobility and other possible external enemies; but at the same time they themselves fell into a new dependence on the same German sovereign. The popes soon realized this and wanted, one way or another, to get rid of German dependence, which later became one of the reasons for the clashes between the imperial and papal authorities.

Cluny movement. Much more important for the transformation of the church in general was the religious movement that emerged from the Cluny monastery founded at the beginning of the 10th century (near the city of Macon in Burgundy) and known in history as the Cluny movement.

By the 10th century, the monasteries ceased to live according to the former strict rules of St. Benedict of Nursia, born in Italy at the end of the 5th century. The Benedictine Rule required that a person entering a monastery belong not to himself, but to God; in addition to prayers and fasting, special attention had to be paid to humility, to obedience to elders in everything; the whole life of this “warrior of Christ” passed under the strict supervision of the abbot (abbot); work and reading were allowed, but both were also under the watchful supervision of elders. Charter of St. Benedicta spread from Italy to other European countries, especially France and Germany. Already in the 8th century, it was clear that the monks were burdened by this strict charter and violated it: worldly, secular interests penetrated into the monasteries. Under Charlemagne and Louis the Pious, Benedict of Agnan made an attempt, with some changes, to again revive the Benedictine rule in the monasteries. But this attempt was not very successful. By the beginning of the 10th century, the monasteries, like the entire church in general, lived an inappropriate secular life; The Benedictine Rule was forgotten.

The movement in favor of church reform (i.e. transformation) came out of the Cluny monastery. At first, only the transformation of monastic life was meant. Immediately the Cluny monastery was placed in a very advantageous position, since the pope subjected it personally to his authority and freed the local bishop from the authority; therefore, the monastery, taking advantage of the patronage of the pope and not depending on the local spiritual authorities, which otherwise could have interfered, was able to work for the benefit of transforming monastic life much more successfully. After some time, the pope gave the monastery new privileges (i.e., advantages), allowing it to take other monasteries under its authority to transform them; The pope released the monks of those hostels who did not agree to the transformation from obedience to their abbots. Thus, the transformative activity of the Cluny monastery expanded and moved to other monasteries, the number of which quickly increased.

The austere lifestyle of the Cluny Abbey, obedience and strictness in the inner life, sincere piety, charity and kindness made an excellent impression and gained more and more supporters. By the middle of the 11th century, 65 monasteries already depended on Cluny. A similar movement developed in Lorraine.

Little by little, Cluny’s transformative activities ceased to be limited only to monastic life; She also paid attention to the church in general, and set out to restore its fallen morals and loose discipline and destroy the secular customs and habits that had taken root in the church. The Clunians especially rebelled against simony, that is, selling spiritual offices for money; the latter custom had a very disastrous effect on the morality of the clergy, since in this state of affairs church places were given to individuals not according to their merits, but to those who paid more for this or that place; The more important and higher the place was, the more significant the payment.

The sovereigns so far supported the Cluny movement and expressed sympathy for the aspirations of the Clunians to transform and improve the church. But this continued until the Clunians paid attention to the custom. investiture. Starting from Otto I, investiture was very important for German sovereigns, since it created strong support for them in the person of bishops in the fight against dukes and princes. The German sovereign appointed bishops and gave them ownership of the land. The Clunians could not agree with this: it seemed unacceptable to them that a secular sovereign could appoint bishops and generally replace spiritual places with his authority. This was to be administered by the church; especially since kings, when appointing spiritual positions, very often had in mind not the most worthy candidate, but the most suitable and convenient for them; in other words, these appointments took place not for the sake of church, but for the sake of secular and often state interests. It goes without saying that the kings did not want to give up investiture and were even ready to fight the church for it. So, while the Cluny movement, on the one hand, gained more and more supporters in the church and in society and actually contributed to the purification and improvement of church and monastic life and the rise of the lowly fallen papacy, it, on the other hand, because of its the desire to destroy investiture created an enemy in the person of the German sovereign, for whom investiture was one of the main reasons for strengthening his power in Germany. A collision was inevitable.

Heinrich ΠΙ. In Germany, after the end of the Saxon dynasty, a Franconian duke was elected to the throne, who began the Franconian dynasty (1024-1125). The second sovereign of this dynasty, Henry III, was a supporter of church reform. He wanted the papal throne to be occupied by worthy people and so that the popes would not be a toy in the hands of the Roman nobility, who elevated and deposed whomever they wanted to the papal throne. Henry III also promised to prevent simony.

The papacy was going through a terrible time in this era; Once in Rome there were three popes at once, who, to the general temptation, cursed each other. In such circumstances, Henry III came to Rome, deposed all three popes and, thanks to his strength and great influence, elevated one of the Germans loyal to him to the papal throne. The power of the Roman nobility was broken; she could no longer influence the election of the pope. But after Henry III's trip to Italy, influence on the election of the pope passed into his hands; the German sovereign disposed of the papal throne autocratically; the Pope turned in the hands of Henry III into one of those German bishops whom German sovereigns, since the time of Otto the Great, had become accustomed to appoint at their own will as ordinary officials.

From this moment on, the Clunians, who had until then lived in peace with Henry III and found support in him in carrying out their reforms, could no longer act together with him. The exponent of Cluny's aspirations, who did not think of starting an open struggle with the German sovereign, was one of the most remarkable people of the Middle Ages, Hildebrand, who later became pope under the name of Gregory VII.

Hildebrand. Hildebrand was the son of a villager and was born in a town bordering Tuscany (a region in the north of central Italy). His parents, noticing outstanding talents in their son, sent him to be raised by his uncle in Rome, to a monastery that was in close relations with Cluny, sympathized with church reform and was considered a significant center of education. Already at this time, Hildebrand showed a tendency towards great, vigorous activity in society. The monastery was against this. Hildebrand, not without hesitation, took monastic vows, which brought him even closer to the monastic mentors, who saw in this determination of Hildebrand, who had overcome worldly aspirations, a strong will. Hildebrand began his practical activity by becoming a chaplain, that is, a house priest, for Pope Gregory VI. Henry III, while in Rome, drew attention to Hildebrand, to his abilities, ambition and iron will, and, afraid to leave such a dangerous man for imperial politics in Rome, he took him with him to Germany.

After spending some time at the German court, with the permission of Henry III, he retired to Cluny, where he led a solitary life, exhausted himself with fasting and prayer, and pondered a number of issues that he later tried to put into practice. In his opinion, the church should take first place and prevail over secular power; To do this, she must reach moral heights and stand far from worldly temptations and interests. At Cluny, Hildebrand came to the conclusion that the marriage of the clergy and simony were the most damaging to the church. The wife and children involuntarily force one to take care of the family, about everyday interests and distract them from serving God. Hildebrand himself showed this renunciation of the world by his own example: in his letters he never remembered either his father, his mother, or his relatives, as if they had never existed; for him, the Apostle Peter was his father, and the Roman Church was his mother. In his opinion, simony, that is, the sale of spiritual places, was also unacceptable. It must be said that simony was sometimes understood more broadly as any interference of secular power in church affairs.

Some time later, Hildebrand, with one of the popes appointed by Henry III, returned to Rome and began to enjoy such great influence at the papal court that several popes who were on the throne before Hildebrand himself was elevated to it fulfilled, one might say, his wishes and plans.

At this time Henry III died; power passed to his young son Henry IV (1056-1106). The unrest in Germany and the weak royal power allowed supporters of the papal reform to get down to business, especially since the Roman nobility, pacified under Henry III, again raised its head and again wanted to gain its former influence on the elections of the popes.

At the insistence of Hildebrand, Pope Nicholas II carried out a very important reform: at the council it was decided that election of the pope depended from the College of Cardinals, that is, from the meeting of the highest church dignitaries, wherever they gather for the election of the pope. This decree stopped the interference of secular authorities in the election of popes. The young Henry IV could not do anything against this decree. To curb the Roman nobility who were dissatisfied with this, the pope entered into an alliance with the Normans who were attacking Italy at that time. Hildebrand's influence increased. The persecution of simony and clergy marriage found more and more supporters. But this was not enough for Hildebrand’s ambitious plans: he had to finally free the church from the influence of secular power and, placing the papacy above all the powers of the world, establish the “kingdom of God on earth.”

Gregory VII. Finally, Hildebrand, under the name of Gregory VII, took the papal throne (1073-1085) and became the spiritual head of the entire Western European world. Now he had in his hands the full opportunity to personally and openly begin the planned reforms.

Gregory VII had a very high concept of papal power. According to him, only the Roman bishop is rightfully called ecumenical and only he alone can depose and restore bishops; he is the only one in the world called dad; the pope can depose emperors and release subjects from allegiance to their sovereign; No one can judge dad. According to Gregory VII, “The King of Glory Himself placed St. Apostle Peter, and therefore his vicar, that is, the Pope, as the head of the kingdoms of the world. The Pope is as superior to the emperor as the sun is superior to the moon, and therefore the power of the apostolic throne is far higher the power of the royal throne."

If Gregory VII had such a high idea of ​​\u200b\u200bhis power, then he met a similar opinion about royal power with Henry. The latter claimed that he received his power from God, and therefore the pope has no right to encroach on it. Of course, such two views could not live in peace with each other.

Having become pope, Gregory VII began to severely persecute simony and introduce celibacy, or, as it is often called by the Latin word, celibacy of the clergy. If the pope's measures against simony found universal approval and support, the order on celibacy was met with very hostility in various countries; The clergy opposed this reform, and Gregory had great difficulty in carrying out this matter. But with these successes Gregory had not yet achieved his intended goal; he needed to finally free the church from secular influence and interference; To do this, it was necessary to destroy investiture. But in this case, he had to face the emperor, who based his power in Germany on investiture and found in it a means of fighting against the feudal rulers.

Henry IV. His fight with Gregory VII. Henry IV, having a high concept of his power, could not tolerate the proud behavior of the tribal dukes in Germany and therefore entered into a struggle with them in order to break their power. At first the fight was unsuccessful for Henry, who had to fight the Saxons for a particularly long time. An uprising broke out against Henry in Germany. During this difficult time, Gregory turned to the young sovereign with a demand to abandon investiture, threatening, in case of disobedience to the papal demand, to excommunicate Henry. Henry, however, managed to pacify Saxony, where he built several fortified castles and brought peace to Germany.

Henry decided not to fulfill the pope’s demand and continued to appoint bishops with his authority, which completely irritated Gregory. Soon after this, Henry convened a council at Worms on the middle Rhine. At the Council of Worms, Gregory was declared unworthy to bear the papal rank and he was denied obedience. A message about this was sent to Gregory signed by the bishops present at the council, and Henry himself, in his personal message to “Hildebrand, no longer a pope, but a false monk,” ordered him to “leave the unjustly appropriated throne of St. Peter.” The royal envoy at the council in Rome loudly called Gregory “not a pope, but a predatory wolf.” The angry pope, in response to the resolution of the Council of Worms, announced the dethronement of Henry, released his subjects from the oath, forbade them to obey him as their king, and finally excommunicated him from the church.

Henry's excommunication made a deep impression in Germany. The German princes, dissatisfied with Henry's autocratic policy, fell away from him, citing the fact that they could not obey the excommunicated king. The vast majority of the bishops who signed the decree of the council in Worms did not go against the papal excommunication, declared their repentance for their offense and asked the pope for forgiveness. The Pope has already spoken about electing a new king for Germany. Henry IV was gradually abandoned by almost everyone and could not even think about fighting the pope.

Canossa. In such circumstances, Henry IV decided to achieve reconciliation with the pope and lift his excommunication. To do this, in the harsh winter of 1077, secretly from the princes, accompanied by his wife, son, bishops and quite a few followers, he undertook a difficult journey through the Alps to Lombardy. Having learned about Henry's unexpected appearance in Italy, Gregory took refuge in Canossa, the fortified castle of the Tuscan margravess Matilda, fearing that Henry might be planning something against him. But in order to organize his German affairs, especially for reconciliation with the princes, Henry needed to receive forgiveness from the pope. He asked Margravine Matilda, who had long been strictly carrying out all of Gregory’s reforms in her domains and enjoyed influence with him, to intercede for him before the pope. Dad did not give a decisive answer for a long time.

Then Henry, despite the harsh winter, barefoot, in only a hair shirt, with his head uncovered, approached the walls of Canossa and, shedding tears, begged for forgiveness. For three days the king and his entourage knocked on the gates of the castle; for three days the gates did not open. Those who had gathered in Canosse nobles and bishops from France, Italy, Germany witnessed the extraordinary spectacle when the most powerful sovereign of Western Europe lay at the feet of the spiritual head of the Western Church and begged his merciful forgiveness.Finally, Gregory, thanks to the new intervention of the Margravine Matilda, gave in and agreed to forgive the repentant sinner ". Henry, who had already frozen his feet, was allowed into the castle to Gregory, before whom he prostrated himself with copious tears and begged to forgive his grave sin. At such a sight, many of those present began to sob. The stern Gregory himself had a tear on his eyelashes. He raised the king and, Having kissed him, he led him to church, where he prayed for permission.The excommunication from Henry was lifted. The event at Canossa was the most striking manifestation of the strength and omnipotence of Gregory's power; after Canossa, its gradual weakening began, ending in its fall.

Continuation of the fight. The reconciliation at Canossa did not bring peace. Both sides parted ways unsatisfied. Henry returned to Germany firmly determined to begin the fight with the pope again at the first opportunity, since his humiliation and reconciliation were forced. Gregory, having subjected Henry to all sorts of humiliations, did not get him to refuse investiture, and soon after Canossa began to initiate secret negotiations with Henry’s enemies in Germany.

Henry's enemies were successful. Under pressure from the pope, a new king, Rudolf of Swabia, was even elected. Henry decided to defend his cause without recognizing papal intervention. In a fit of irritation, the pope again excommunicated Henry from the church. But this time the excommunication no longer had the same force. To many, this excommunication seemed completely unfounded, since Grigo’s personal ambition was already clearly visible in it.

"The hair shirt is the clothing of Christian ascetics, made of coarse dark-colored fabric. They wore it for the purpose of mortifying the flesh.

riya. The bishops also began to fear the all-consuming aspirations of the pope. At this time, Henry's rival, Rudolf of Swabia, fell in one of the battles. The latter circumstance greatly eased Henry's situation. Numerous adherents gathered around him, no longer afraid of the new papal excommunication.

Henry entered Italy with a large army, approached Rome and besieged it several times. Gregory, locked in the castle of St. Angela, withstood the siege and turned to the Normans for help. Convinced of the futility of further resistance, Gregory, with the help of the Normans, fled from the castle of St. Angela to the south, into the borders of the Norman kingdom. Even before this, Henry elevated a new pope to the papal throne, who crowned him emperor.

From an all-powerful ruler, Gregory turned into a pitiful, homeless fugitive who found shelter with the Norman barbarians. The anxieties and worries of recent years broke the health of the elderly Gregory, who himself foresaw his imminent death. They say that several months before his death he determined the day and hour of his death. In 1 08 5, Gregory VII was not one hundred π o. His last words were: “I loved justice and hated injustice, and for this I am dying in exile.”

Concordat of Worms. With the death of Gregory, the struggle for investiture did not stop. Henry IV was again subject to papal excommunications; even his sons rebelled against him. The question of investiture was resolved by the son and successor of Henry IV, Henry V and Pope Callixtus II, at the Diet of Worms. 1122 year. The resolution of this Diet is usually called the Worms concordat, that is, an agreement. Under this concordat, both sides made concessions on the issue of investiture. The German sovereign renounced his right to appoint to ecclesiastical positions; the latter were to be replaced after 1122 by correct elections made in accordance with church laws. Thus, the emperor refused spiritual investiture. Secular investiture, that is, the endowment of land (flax) to a chosen person, continued to remain in his hands. It cannot be said that the Concordat of Worms finally resolved this such a sensational issue. Misunderstandings were possible, and they actually happened. One of the simplest grounds for misunderstanding was, for example, the emperor’s reluctance to give land to a person elected to one or another spiritual position by the pope.

Although the church by 1122 had not achieved the implementation of the program of Gregory VII in its entirety, nevertheless, what the church achieved was extremely important for it. In purely church life, the abolition of simony and celibacy of the clergy gained force; in the relations between the church and the imperial or royal power, the church achieved complete independence of papal elections from the emperors (the statute of Pope Nicholas II), wrested spiritual investiture from their hands and thus freed the German bishops from the power of the German sovereigns. All this indicates that the struggle of the 11th and early 12th centuries between secular and spiritual power ended in favor of the latter.

Papacy and Hohenstaufens

Conrad S. With the death of Henry V in 1125, the Franconian dynasty ended. After the troubled reign of Lothair of Saxony, he was elected to the German throne Konrad Hohenztaufen, Duke of Swabia, who began the Hohenstaufen dynasty, or simply Staufen; she rules from 1138 to 1254.

The first representative of the new dynasty, Conrad III, had to endure a difficult struggle to strengthen his power in Germany with Henry the Proud of the Witch family, Duke of Saxony and Bavaria. In the end, Conrad III managed to deal with the strong duke and transfer a more or less calmed Germany to his successor. Among the external enterprises of Conrad III, one can note his participation in the second crusade, which was undertaken to liberate the Holy Places from the hands of the infidels, but, apart from losses and expenses, brought nothing to Germany.

Frederick Barbarossa. Conrad III's successor on the German throne was his famous nephew Frederick I Barbarossa, i.e. Redbeard (1152-1190). Frederick I came to the throne with a high sense of his power. Considering himself the successor of the emperors Constantine, Theodosius and Justinian, he set as his goal "to restore the greatness of the Roman Empire to its former strength and completeness." He was of the opinion that his will had the force of law, that he had supreme power over the world and that the world itself was his property; everything in the world depends on his power, given to him by God.

The emperor was also assured of this by the “legists,” as learned experts in Roman law were called at that time. The study of Roman law, starting from the 11th century, began to spread throughout Italy, especially

thanks to the University of Bologna; from Italy it spread to other European countries. The legalists said that the Roman emperor had unlimited power; Therefore, Frederick I, as the heir of the Roman emperors, also had similar power.

For many, such a high idea of ​​imperial power was unpleasant and seemed dangerous. The dukes and princes within Germany were dissatisfied; The strengthened and richer cities of northern Italy looked at this with fear; were irritated by the claims of Frederick and the pope.

Frederick reconciled with his main enemy in Germany, Henry the Lion, Duke of Saxony, son of Henry the Proud, recognizing his right to Bavaria.

Fight against Lombard cities. Having arranged affairs in Germany, Frederick I wanted to extend his power to those areas where this power had weakened. Such an area was northern Italy, or Lombardy. In Lombardy, by the middle of the 12th century, a very important phenomenon emerged. The Lombard cities, led by Milan, thanks to trade, especially with the East, became rich, settled and strengthened. Little by little, during the struggle for investiture under Henry IV and Henry V, the Lombard cities, taking advantage of the weakening of imperial power, began to strive to get rid of it completely and become independent. They succeeded: the Lombard cities turned into independent small states with their own government. Of course, Frederick could not bear this; he wanted to force the proud cities to recognize his power and influence. The fight against the cities was also combined with relations with the pope, who, fearing for his power, often stood on the side of the cities and supported them in the fight against the emperor.

Six times Frederick went to Italy. The Lombard families had to suffer a lot. The second campaign was especially difficult for them, when the main city of Milan was forced to surrender to the mercy of the German emperor; the latter this time forgave and pardoned Milan. In the same year, on the Roncal Field, near the city of Piacenza." (southeast of Milan), a Diet was convened by Frederick, which restored the full power of the emperor in Lombardy; according to the resolutions of this Diet, Frederick was recognized as the unlimited owner of the territory of Lombardy and the chief judge; he also had the right to appoint city authorities. When the time came to carry out the decisions of the Roncal Congress, displeasure arose in Lombardy, and open rebellion broke out in Milan.

"Piacenza.

The second siege of Milan began, leading to a new surrender of the city. All The Milanese population declared that they were surrendering to the will of the emperor, and barefoot, with ropes around their necks, with their heads sprinkled with ashes, with burning candles in their hands, they headed to the imperial camp. After making them wait for quite a long time, Frederick finally came out to the Milanese. The city banners were laid at his feet; The main shrine of the city - a high mast, decorated with a cross and the image of the main patron of Milan, Bishop Ambrose, was broken into pieces by order of the emperor. The Emperor granted life to the Milanese; but they had to leave Milan within eight days, since the city was subject to destruction. Indeed, Milan was sacked and destroyed to the ground; only a few churches and palaces remained. A furrow was drawn with a plow at the site of the former city and sprinkled with salt; the latter meant that this place had to remain deserted forever. With such cruelty, Frederick repaid the rich and powerful Milan for his rebellion.

Italian cities, accustomed to independent governance, could not come to terms with the new state of affairs and hoped to get rid of Frederick's autocracy. To do this, they found an assistant and adviser in the person of Pope Alexander II, who was an ardent opponent of the emperor's omnipotence. For the papacy, it was important to support the cities in order to prevent the emperor from becoming too strong both in Italy in general and in Rome in particular. The emperor's supporters chose another pope.

Italian cities quickly recovered from the blow they received. Trade continued to flourish; wealth increased. But the cities understood that the key to success lay in their consent. They forgot their former rivalry and concluded a dig, that is, an alliance to fight Frederick. Pope Alexander III actively supported them. The League built a new fortress and named it Alexandria in honor of the pope. The inhabitants of the destroyed Milan returned to their old place, rebuilt the city and fortified it again. Milan, as before, became the head of the Lombard cities.

Battle of Legnano. Frederick, seeing the unexpected revival of Lombardy and indignant at the behavior of Pope Alexander III, decided to take a new campaign. The war did not start particularly well for Frederick. At this very time, the Duke of Saxony, Henry the Lion, who until then had always helped Frederick in his Italian campaigns, unexpectedly refused to help him. Frederick personally, even with some humiliation, asked him to take back the refusal. But Heinrich Leo remained adamant. In 1176, the emperor suffered a terrible defeat at Legnano, near Verona, and he himself barely escaped from the battlefield. Cities and dad celebrated. The following year, a congress was assembled in Venice, which was attended by the emperor, the pope and representatives of Italian cities. On the porch of the Cathedral of St. Brand G Frederick “threw himself at the pope’s feet,” kissed his foot, and while leaving the cathedral, walking on foot, supported the pope’s stirrup. Exactly one hundred years after Canossa, the world again saw the humiliation of the empire and before the papal power. Frederick admitted the wrongness of his actions and, according to the Venepian truce, gave significant rights to the cities. The final peace with the Lombard cities was signed a few years later in Constance, on Lake Constance. In this world, the Lombard cities, or, as they are often called, urban communities, received confirmation of their independence; within the city walls they enjoyed all sovereign rights. The emperor retained the right of the supreme court. In addition, the cities had to support the imperial court during the emperor's stay in Italy. The subsequent relations of the cities towards Frederick were peaceful.

The main culprit of Frederick's failure in Italy, Heinrich Lev, suffered appropriate punishment. The Emperor, returning to Germany, deprived him of Saxony and Bavaria and expelled him from the borders of his state for a certain period.

At the end of his reign, Frederick married his son and heir to Constance, heir to the Norman kingdom. This was a very important event, since after the death of Frederick, his heir annexed Naples and Sicily to the possessions of the German sovereign.

Shortly before his death, Frederick, carried away by the idea of ​​​​conquering Jerusalem, went on a campaign, during which, in the depths of Asia Minor, while crossing a river, he was carried away by the current and drowned (1190).

His successor Henry VI, who united in his hands the vast possessions of the German king, Sicily and Naples, was the most powerful sovereign. It was especially terrible for the popes, whose possessions were now constrained by Henry's possessions from the north and south. But Henry VI died quite unexpectedly, not having time to fulfill his plans.

Innocent S. Friedrich Π

After the death of Henry VI, a time of prolonged and severe unrest came for his state. In Sicily, the three-year-old son of Henry VI, Frederick II, who was under the tutelage of the pope, remained king. In Germany itself, a long-standing struggle broke out between the houses of Hohenstaufen and Welf. The first elected the brother of the late Henry VI, Philip of Swabia, as king; the second - the son of Henry Leo Otto of Bavaria. Thus, three sovereigns appeared simultaneously.

Innocent III. At this very time, the famous Pope Innocent III appeared on the papal throne, under whom the papacy reached the highest level of its power.

Innocent III came from a wealthy and ancient noble family living in the vicinity of Rome; in the world his name was Lothar. He received an excellent education: he thoroughly studied theology at the University of Paris, and law at the University of Bologna. Already in his first essay, “On Contempt for the World,” Lothair showed himself to be a man of great learning and great talent. Upon returning to Rome, he distinguished himself so much that at the age of 29 he was made a cardinal, and eight years later he was elected pope and took the name Innocent III (1198-1216).

In his idea of ​​papal power, Innocent III followed in the footsteps of Gregory VII; only his position was easier than the latter’s. Gregory VII had to win spiritual power from secular power. And Innocent III already had in his hands a power almost independent of the power of the sovereign. Like Gregory VII, he compared the two powers to the sun and moon; just as the moon receives its light from the sun, so royal power receives all its splendor and its greatness from the papal power. Rome, said Innocent III, holds in its hands the keys of heaven and the government of the earth, all the fullness of spiritual and temporal power. The pope had the right to remove sovereigns who were only his proteges. Papal power under Innocent III reached unprecedented greatness. Some sovereigns recognized their vassal dependence on him.

Innocent III tried his best as head of the Catholic Church spread Catholicism wherever he could, whether it was at the mouth of the Western Dvina, or on the Bosphorus, or on the Dniester.

Papal missionaries operated in Livonia, along the banks of the Western Dvina, back in the 12th century. Innocent III, wanting to help them, sent Bishop Albert with an army to the mouth of the Dvina, who, having founded the city of Riga, began to spread Christianity by force among neighboring tribes, subjugating them to German power and at the same time to the Roman Church. In Livonia, at that time, with the blessing of the pope, an order of spiritual knights, “Bearers of the Sword,” was founded, who were supposed to conquer the country and subjugate it to papal authority.

The prepared fourth crusade, which Innocent III called for with extraordinary fervor, due to various conditions ended with the conquest of Byzantium and the formation of the Latin Empire within its borders. After this, almost the entire Byzantine east fell under the rule of the Roman Church in ecclesiastical terms.

The embassy of Innocent III also appeared on the Dniester near Rum to Mstislavich, Prince of Galicia. On behalf of the pope, it offered him a royal crown and promised to help him conquer new lands if he only accepted the Catholic faith. But Roman Mstislavich proudly refused such an offer. At the beginning of the 13th century, Innocent III wrote to both the clergy and laity in Russia about sending his legate (ambassador) there in order to “return the daughter to the mother,” that is, the Russian Church to the Catholic Church.

So varied and extensive were the attempts of Innocent III to spread Catholicism.

Innocent III was relentless towards heretics. During his time, heretical teachings became widespread in southern France. After the pope's unsuccessful attempt to return the heretics to the fold of the Catholic Church, he launched a crusade against them. The crusaders subjected the flourishing and rich country to merciless devastation, and the heretics to merciless beatings, without distinguishing between women, children, and the elderly. Heresy was exterminated; but the country could not rest from this pogrom for a long time.

Innokenty Sh and Germany. It seemed to Innocent III that in order to achieve complete power over the world, he needed to destroy the influence of the emperor in Italy, which at the end of the 12th century was strengthened by the union of the emperor’s possessions with Naples and Sicily. But at the time of the election of Innocent III to the papal throne, circumstances changed. As already mentioned, after the death of Henry VI there were three sovereigns at the same time. The young Frederick, who was in southern Italy under papal care, had not yet bothered him. Frederick even recognized himself as a vassal of the pope. The pope turned his main attention to two rivals who were at war with each other over the throne in Germany - Philip of Swabia and Otto of Bavaria. He intervened in their dispute and mainly supported Otto. After the unexpected death of Philip of Swabia, Otto of Bavaria became emperor (Otto IV) and immediately changed his policy towards the papacy: Otto stopped obeying the pope and laid claim to Italy. The pope, deceived in his hopes, turned to young Frederick II, son of Henry VI, and set him up against Otto. Dad had high hopes for this. Frederick, who was still in vassal relations to the papal throne, having become emperor, could also make the German possessions the fief of the pope. In addition, Innocent III hoped that he would be able to prevent the union of the Sicilian kingdom with the empire and thereby weaken his possible opponents. Frederick defeated Otto IV and was elected German sovereign (1212).

Friedrich II grew up in an environment completely unusual for a German king, having lived his childhood and youth under the southern sky of Sicily in Palermo, among luxurious nature, Frederick was brought up in the special conditions that were created on this island. The Greeks lived there, later the Arabs and then the Normans, and all of them, with their customs and their culture, had a great influence on the life of the island. Frederick felt this himself. He spoke excellent Italian, Greek, Latin and Arabic"; It is doubtful that he spoke German well in his youth. Frederick was much more relaxed about religious issues than his contemporaries; but under the influence of Eastern scientists, Arabs and Jews, of whom there were many at his Sicilian court, he became interested in the natural and philosophical sciences. With his intelligence and education, Frederick ι was far superior to his contemporaries, which is why the latter did not always understand him.

Having first acted in the fight against Otto IV as a vassal and defender of the papal throne, Frederick then spent his entire life in a bitter struggle with the popes. First of all, he deceived the hopes of the pope by the fact that, having become the German king, he did not cease to be the sovereign of the Sicilian kingdom. As in the time of Henry VI, Rome was surrounded by the possessions of the German sovereign.

But to endure this struggle with Frederick Innocent!! it was not necessary, since he died in 1216. Under him the papacy reached its greatest flowering and greatest strength; but from it one can already notice the first signs of the decline of the papacy, which, with its persistent desire for secular dominion, relegated its spiritual responsibilities to the background; such a “peacefulness of the papacy” led to great doubts among true believers, and little by little discontent began to intensify against such a transformed papacy; The popes acquired more and more enemies in various states and in various strata of society.

Frederick II, having become sovereign of Germany and the Sicilian kingdom, ruled them differently. He turned his main attention to the south, to Naples and Sicily. In Germany, he granted freedom to the dukes and princes, who enjoyed great independence under him. According to Frederick himself, in Germany he was the head that rested on the shoulders of the princes. This was not the case within the Sicilian kingdom. Having adopted the practice of the former Norman sovereigns, Frederick became the unlimited ruler there. Feudalism was "under hell": the entire state was governed by officials appointed by Frederick; besides them, neither barons, nor bishops, nor other noble people played any role. The tax system was perfectly organized; direct taxes consisted of land and poll taxes; indirect taxes fell for basic necessities, such as salt, copper, silk, etc. Frederick also took care of educational institutions: he organized in Naples and patronized the famous medical school in Salerno in the Middle Ages.Dazzling luxury reigned at his court.

Frederick II's fight against the papacy. Much of Frederick II's reign was spent in bitter struggle with the popes, especially Gregory IX and Innocent IV. The popes, seeing that Frederick II, whom they thought to keep in their hands, left them and became

on an independent path, they set out to not only defeat Frederick, but also to completely destroy the Hohenstaufen dynasty that had become hated by him. The pope had many reasons to act against Frederick: he did not keep his promise to Innocent III, uniting Germany and the Sicilian kingdom in one hand; then, in his Sicilian possessions, the clergy was placed on the same level as ordinary officials who were completely dependent on him, which the popes saw as an unacceptable diminution of their power. So, the popes turned out to be his irreconcilable enemies.

On the other hand, the Italian cities, which had achieved great benefits and almost complete internal independence under Frederick Barbarossa, wanted, taking advantage of the unrest after the death of Henry VI, to finally free themselves from German dependence., Guelphs and Ghibellines. The fight began. All of Italy was divided into two large hostile camps: the Ghibellines (on behalf of one Hohenstaufen castle), who were supporters of the emperor, and the Guelphs (from the Welf family, hostile to the Hohenstaufens), who were supporters of the papacy. The papal party united with the Italian cities. The long struggle that engulfed all of Italy was characterized by extraordinary fierceness; not only in every, even small town, in most cases both these parties were at enmity; even in separate families there were Ghibellines and Guelphs. Popes

1 By feudalism here, as in other sections, the author of the textbook does not understand the feudal system based on the exploitation of the serfs or dependent peasantry by feudal lords, but the political management of society, in which the feudal lords enjoyed great independence and had little regard for the sovereign.

They excommunicated Frederick II from the church several times, outraged the German princes against him, incited his son against him, accused him of heresy, etc. Even at the moment when Frederick II was about to sail on a crusade, the pope excommunicated him from the * church. But the energetic emperor did not give up and stubbornly continued the difficult and exhausting struggle. Luck switched from one side to the other. However, such intense activity affected the emperor’s health, and at the end of 1250 Frederick II died.

Personality of Frederick II and his vigorous activity made a deep impression both on his contemporaries and on the subsequent generation. One contemporary of Frederick said that “if he had been a good Catholic and loved God and the church, he would not have had anyone like him.” The name of Frederick was held in great esteem by the Arabs. But most of all, the memory of him was preserved in folk stories and legends of Western Europe. The people often did not believe that Frederick was dead; they said that he sleeps in one mountain; in the second half of the 13th century several false Fredericks appeared.

The common people were convinced that Frederick would return, appear again in Germany, and then a brilliant time would come for a strong and powerful empire. In later times, in this beautiful legend about Frederick II, the name of the latter began to often be replaced by the name of his grandfather Frederick I Barbarossa.

The end of the Hohenstaufens. After the death of Frederick II, his son Conrad IV ruled in Germany for four years. With his death in 1254, a troubled interregnum began in Germany. Frederick's other son Manfred became king of Sicilia. But the popes, seeing that the power of the Hohenstaufens in the person of Frederick II had disappeared, dealt the final blow to this dynasty. The Pope summoned Charles of Anjou and who, the brother of the French king Louis IX, to southern Italy. Manfred died at the Battle of Benevente, after which Sicily and Naples came into French possession. Charles of Anjou became the new king.

But Conrad IV, king of the Germans, left behind a son, young Krnradin, raised in Germany. He opposed Charles of Anjou, wanting to return the Sicilian kingdom. In the battle that took place, Conradin was defeated, captured by Charles, on whose orders he was beheaded in one of the squares of Naples. The last words of the unfortunate Conradi before his execution were: “Oh, mother! What deep grief will the news of my fate plunge you into!” With the death of Conradin, the famous Hohenstaufen family disappeared. The popes should have triumphed: they destroyed the dynasty they hated. The power of the German sovereigns in Italy ceased.

But the triumph of the papacy was only external. The struggles of the 13th century showed the world that the popes did not fight to achieve any spiritual goals, but because of the desire to achieve superiority over the Hohenstaufens; methods of struggle were indifferent to them; The popes took revenge on their personal enemies by destroying an entire family. The real church could have nothing to do with this. In the 12th century, the fall of the papacy began.

Italian cities also took part in the struggle of the 12th century, for which it turned out to be extremely profitable; the cities achieved complete independence from the imperial power. In Germany itself, thanks to the Gorman policy of Frederick II, the princes after 1254 became independent sovereigns in their domains. The power of the German sovereign turned out to be completely weak.

The triumph of Charles of Anjou over the Hohenstaufens was also not lasting. He ruled so arbitrarily and autocratically in Naples and Sicily that in a short time he caused great displeasure among the population. Particularly worried was Sicily, where French rule had become hated. At Easter 1282, an uprising broke out in Palermo and quickly spread throughout the island. King Peter of Aragon was summoned from Spain, who easily subjugated Sicily. The French were expelled from the island, and Spanish rule was established there. After this, the French remained in possession only of Naples. In history, this uprising in Sicily is called "Sicilian Vespers" since it began at the hour of church vespers.

"Pedro III, King of Aragon, was married to Manfred Hohenstaufen's daughter Constance. This marriage served as a legal basis for the Aragonese king to claim part of Italy. Charles of Anjou's son, Charles the Lame, was captured by Pedro III, and Charles of Anjou died in 1285. After On the death of Pedro III, the crown of Sicily passed to his second son Jaime.Royal House of Aragon

secured Sicily for himself, and in 1442 took possession of the Kingdom of Naples.