Egyptian myth of human origins (including rebellion). What did the ancient Egyptians really look like? Ancient Egyptian state historical information

Ancient Egypt lasted the longest time compared to other civilizations in the world. The heyday of the empire was noted in the period from 3000 to 1000 BC, however, the pharaohs ruled for centuries.

Egypt assumed its position as the leading Middle Eastern power from 612 to 525 BC, after liberating the country from foreign invaders.

He received the status of pharaoh, which meant the continuation of the tradition of ancient Egypt. In 305 BC. Ptolemy, appointed commander, became the independent ruler of the country. The dynasty ruled until 31 AD. - death of Queen Cleopatra. After this, Egypt was conquered by the Roman Empire and became its province.

History of Ancient Egypt

The country's culture has undergone significant changes. The period of history from the beginning of civilization in 3000 BC. before the conquest by the Romans in 31 BC, was almost three thousand years.

Egypt is located in the Nile Valley in northeast Africa. Civilization originated in Upper Egypt, on the territory of the cities of Abydos and Hyrakonpolis. Then the power of the pharaohs spread to the north in the city of Memphis and the Mediterranean.

By 3000 B.C. the united kingdom of Egypt occupied the entire Nile valley north of the first cataract of the Nile in the south - the cataract, next to modern Sudan.

By 1250 B.C. Ancient Egypt occupied lands in the north near the Assyrian kingdom and in the east to the Red Sea, in the south along the Nile to, in the west to the Libyan Desert

The life of the Egyptian population was centered around the Nile River and the fertile lands along its banks. Peasants in the Nile Valley developed irrigation techniques to control the flow of water during seasonal floods and to irrigate during the dry season.

The lands of the valley were so rich in crops that there was a surplus of agricultural crops. The proceeds from their sale were used to build incredible architectural projects, such as the Pyramids of Giza and the Temples of Luxor. The elite grew rich, foreign trade and diplomacy developed. Rich rewards were offered for waging wars of conquest.

The main achievements of civilization were:

• invention of hieroglyphs;
• creation of a management system;
• the emergence of the science of mathematics;
• development of industry;
• the invention of irrigation technologies and efficient farming methods;
• organization of the judicial system.

Ancient Egypt's system of government

In ancient Egypt, one of the first state apparatuses was created - a government that exercised power over the territory of the entire state. The Sumerian civilization consisted of several city-states with a population of several dozen each. They had their own written language. In a unified Egypt, the government's authority extended over thousands of square meters with a population of several million inhabitants.

The pharaoh was considered both a political leader and a center. He bore the status of “lord of two lands.” This meant that he ruled Upper and Lower Egypt. He was also called the "high priest of every temple" as he was considered the main cult to worship on earth. In the eyes of the ancient Egyptians, the power of the pharaoh extended between heaven and earth. How prosperous the pharaoh was was determined by the state of the country and his people.

The pharaoh was responsible for military support and border protection. When there was a threat of seizure of territories, he collected. Tribute was collected from the conquered lands - valuable gifts and war trophies.

Officials helped the pharaoh govern: scribes, overseers, ministers and courtiers. The vizier, a close associate of the court, received greater power. He represented the pharaoh in resolving issues in the treasury, in dispensing justice and in administering the lands. Control was exercised over both wealthy citizens and the poorest peasants. The land of Egypt was divided into nomes - administrative regions. Each region was ruled by a Nomarch.

Temples were used as places of worship, granaries and treasuries for storing grain and goods.

The army of Egypt in ancient times

The armament of the army of ancient Egypt consisted of:

• bows and arrows;
• spears;
• round shields;
• wooden frames made from stretched animal skin.

Weapons and armor were made of bronze. Shields were made of hard wood with a bronze buckle, spears with tips were used. During the New Kingdom, chariots were introduced into the army.
The pharaohs followed on horseback as the head of the army. Many kings went into battle personally to justify the hopes of the people, although this was not always safe for them.
The army's first duty was to defend Egypt against foreign invasion. The most difficult thing was to ensure safety near Nubia, where important trade routes passed.

Religion of Ancient Egypt

The ancient Egyptians adhered to the pagan faith. They worshiped many cults, which included Ra (the Sun), Isis (nature and magic), Horus (protected in war), Osiris (ruled in the kingdom of the dead).

The number of figures for worship and their meanings changed over time. Worship or refusal to perform rites in honor of certain gods reflected political events in Egypt. For example, when rulers came to power, the event was marked by the founding of the New Kingdom. Amon, united by Ra, was put in charge, and this is how Amon-Ra turned out.

Divine services were held in churches, rituals were introduced by priests. Usually the cult figure was placed in a closed room. Only on special occasions was it shown to the people. Each house had its own statue, which was worshiped by family members. Amulets and pendants were worn to protect against the evil eye.

The religious beliefs about the afterlife of the ancient Egyptians also changed over time. Initially, the afterlife was associated with the preservation of the physical body. As the idea of ​​the underworld developed, the priests came to the conclusion that in addition to the material shell, there was a spirit that also traveled to another world. Some people became disembodied souls wandering the earth. For good deeds a person could become “blessed.” In the otherworldly kingdom he was promised a life of goodness and abundance.

Life in Ancient Egypt

Like all pre-industrial civilizations, the economy of Ancient Egypt was based on agriculture. Most of the population were peasant farmers. The fertile lands of the Nile Valley provided constant income to the treasury, providing a luxurious life for the pharaoh, his ministers and numerous priests. The peasants gave up part of the harvest - they paid tribute. These funds were used to build pyramids and a temple along.

Agriculture in Egypt

The fertile lands stretched several kilometers from the Nile River. On both sides the valley is still surrounded by lifeless deserts. The flood season lasted from June to September, resulting in the formation of a fertile layer of silt on the lands. Flood waters were poured into reservoirs and stored in ponds. After the water receded, the growing season began, lasting from October to February. Rainfall was extremely rare in Egypt, so farmers irrigated their fields with river water from reservoirs and the river. For this purpose, outlets were built - canals that carried water to the fields.

Trade in Egypt

Trade within the state was carried out between cities located along the Nile River. For that time, the water route was much cheaper than the land route. Sales were carried out at local markets, and valuable items went to the administration of the nome or city. However, Egyptian cities, unlike Sumerian ones, did not have independence. The largest settlement was considered the city of Memphis, the capital of ancient Egypt.

In the Bronze Age, trade between states was carried out in the form of an exchange or "gift" to the ruler of another civilization. Before the development of caravan routes across the Sahara, the Nile Valley was the only center through which goods traveled from southern Africa north to the Mediterranean countries.

Expeditions went far to the south, to the territory of modern Sudan and the Red Sea, in search of exotic goods: ivory, gold, ostrich feathers and “black” slaves. This property was highly valued internationally. Providing such goods gave the advantage of political influence in the Middle East. Egypt acquired priority in the region over the Hittite and Syrian empires, among the states of Mesopotamia.

Natural Resources of Ancient Egypt

Egypt was rich in mineral resources, widely used in ancient times. Limestone and granite were mined in the Nile Valley. Alabaster, carnelian and emeralds were mined in the Eastern Desert. Extensive gold mines were discovered in . Copper was smelted from malachite ore mined in Sinai. During the Late Period, copper deposits were mined in Upper Egypt.

The minerals listed were mined in remote areas of the eastern Sinai desert. Their development required the dispatch of numerous scientific expeditions.

Periodization of the history of Ancient Egypt

The history of ancient civilization is conventionally divided by modern historians into several periods:

• Pre-Dynastic (Early Dynastic) period;
• Old Kingdom;
• Middle Kingdom;
• New Kingdom;
• Roman period.

The first pharaoh of the ancient unified Egypt, northern and southern lands, is considered.

The history of the existence of the ancient state of Egypt ended with the conquest of Egypt by the descendant of Julius Caesar, Emperor of Rome Augustus (Octavian) in 30 BC. The last pharaoh was Queen Cleopatra VII.

Periods of Ancient Egyptian history

Predynastic period

3500 BC — First settlements in the Nile Valley
3400 BC
3300 BC
3200 BC
3100 BC — A hieroglyphic letter appeared. Pharaoh Narmer united Lower and Upper Egypt.
3000 BC
2900 BC
2800 BC
2700 BC — Construction of the first stone .
2600 BC — The pyramids of Giza were erected.
2500 BC
2400 BC
2300 BC
2200 BC — Egypt is ruled by several kings at the same time.
2100 BC 2055 BC - Pharaoh Menhotep II regained control over the territory of the entire state of Egypt
2000 BC -Development of agricultural technologies in.
The first halls of the temple city of Karnak (modern Luxor) were built.
The Egyptians control Nubia.
1900 BC
1800 BC
1700 BC — The Hyksos seized power in the Nile Delta.
1600 BC — Pharaoh Ahmose is uniting the country.
1500 BC — Pharaoh Hatshepsut ascended to the throne of Egypt.
1400 BC — Akhenaten carried out religious reform in Egypt.
Became a pharaoh.
Return to traditional religion: paganism and polytheism.
1300 BC A hypostyle hall was built in the Karnak Temple.
1247 – Ramses II wins the Battle of Kadesh.
1200 BC
1100 BC — Division into Upper and Lower Egypt.
1000 BC
900 BC
800 BC 728 BC - King Pius of Nubia conquered Egypt.
700 BC 671 BC - The Assyrians seized power in Egypt.
600 BC 525 BC - The Persians occupied Egypt.
500 BC
400 BC 332 BC - liberated Egypt.
305 BC – Ptolemy I formed a new dynasty of pharaohs of Egypt.

300 BC
200 BC 196 BC - written on the Rosetta Stone.
100 BC 31 BC - Battle of Actium.
30 BC - Egyptian pharaoh Cleopatra VII died.
0
100 AD
200 AD
300 AD Latest entry on .
400 AD
500 AD
600 AD 642 AD - Arab conquest of Egypt.
700 AD
800 AD 820 AD – Caliph Al Mamun found the entrance to the Great Pyramid.
900 AD 969 – The city of Cairo is founded. The first stones were laid in the foundation of the capital from the pyramids of Giza.
1000 AD
1100 AD
1200 AD
1300 AD
1400 AD
1500 AD 1517 – Ottoman Turks rule Egypt.
1600 AD
1700 AD 1798 – Napoleon Bonaparte launched a military campaign into Egypt.
1799 – The Rosetta Stone is found.
1800 AD — Travelers and explorers go to explore the buildings of Ancient Egypt
1822 – Egyptian writing was deciphered.
1859-1869 – Suez Canal built.
Official excavations began and the science of Egyptology emerged.

1900 AD 1922 – discovered the tomb of Tutankhamun.
1953 – Egypt gains independence.
1960 – The Aswan High Dam is built.
2000 AD 2015 – “White Walls” of Memphis discovered.

Story ancient Egypt: watch

The term "Egypt" (Aigyptos) comes from the Phoenician "Hikupta" - a corruption of the Egyptian "Hatkapta" ("Temple of Ptah"), the name of the ancient Egyptian capital of Memphis. The Egyptians themselves called their country "Kemet" ("Black Land") after the color of the black soil in the Nile Valley, as opposed to the "Red Land" (desert).

Geography and natural conditions.

Egypt is located in the northeast of the African continent and is connected to Western Asia by the Isthmus of Suez. In ancient times, Egypt meant the valley formed by the lower reaches of the Nile. From the north, Egypt was limited by the Mediterranean Sea, from the west by the Libyan Plateau, from the east by the Arabian (Eastern) Highlands, and from the south by the 1st Nile Cataract. It split into Upper (the Nile Valley itself) and Lower Egypt (the region of the Delta, the wide mouth of the Nile from several branches, shaped like a triangle).

The Nile Valley was a long and narrow oasis (from 1 to 20 km in width), locked on both sides by two mountain ranges and inaccessible in the south (at the 1st threshold the mountain ranges directly approached the river); it was open only in the northeast. This determined the relative isolation and independence of the ancient Egyptian civilization.

The Nile ("Great River"), the longest river in the world (6671 km), is formed from the confluence of the White Nile, flowing from the lakes of Tropical Africa, and the Blue Nile, originating in Lake Tana in the Ethiopian Highlands; in its course it passes six rapids and flows into the Mediterranean Sea through a branched mouth. The annual floods, which begin in mid-July and reach a peak in the fall, after the spring retreat, leave a layer of fertile silt on the Nile banks, which creates extremely favorable conditions for agriculture. The Nile is the main transport artery connecting all parts of the valley with each other and with the Mediterranean Sea. In conditions of almost complete absence of rain (with the exception of the Delta), it is the only source of moisture. It is not surprising that the Egyptians idolized their river and called Egypt “the gift of the Nile.”

Effective use of the benefits of the Nile was impossible without the collective and organized labor of everyone living in its valley. The unevenness of spills (either insufficient rise of water, or flooding, which equally threatened the harvest) necessitated a unified system of regulation and distribution of water (its diversion to remote and elevated places, the construction of dams, the construction of reserve reservoirs, drainage of swamps using canals). The “Big River,” which required the combined efforts of the entire population of the Nile Valley, turned out to be the main factor in the creation of pan-Egyptian statehood.

Another important natural factor in the development of ancient Egyptian civilization was the desert. On the one hand, it contributed to its isolation, preventing contacts with neighboring peoples, and posed a constant threat to it, sending hostile tribes and sandstorms; the Egyptians had to fight it all the time, creating barriers to the advancing sands and conquering from it the territories necessary for agriculture. On the other hand, the column of warm air forming over the desert provided access to the valley of the north wind from the Mediterranean Sea for most of the year, which enriched it with salts that nourish plants and maintained a humid and temperate climate; Only in April and May did the drying southeast wind Khamsin hit Egypt.

The flora and fauna of Egypt was quite diverse. They cultivated barley and emmer (a type of wheat), flax and sesame, and vegetables - cucumbers, leeks and garlic. Lotus and papyrus were collected in the creeks. In the valley there grew date and coconut palms, pomegranate trees, fig trees, acacia trees, and sycamore trees; in the Delta, grapevines and fruit trees grew. However, there was virtually no scaffolding; it was delivered from Phenicia, rich in cedar and oak.

The waters of the Nile abounded in fish, and its thickets abounded in game. Wildlife was represented by lions, cheetahs, panthers, jackals, gazelles, foxes, giraffes, hippopotamuses, crocodiles, rhinoceroses; Some species have disappeared as a result of intense hunting and climate change. Domestic animals included bulls, cows, sheep, goats, pigs, donkeys, dogs, and later mules and horses; from poultry - ducks and geese, later chickens. They raised bees.

Egypt was not rich in minerals. The main asset of its subsoil were various types of stone (granite, basalt, diarite, alabaster, limestone, sandstone). Many metals were missing, which led to the expansion of the Egyptians in the southern and northeastern directions: they were attracted by copper mines in the Sinai Peninsula, and deposits of gold and silver in Nubia and the Arabian Highlands. Egypt and neighboring areas did not have reserves of tin and iron, which delayed the onset of the Bronze and Iron Ages in the Nile Valley.

Ethnic composition.

The Egyptian ethnic group arose as a result of the mixing of a number of Semitic and Hamitic tribes. This anthropological type was distinguished by a strong build, average height, dark skin, high cheekbones with prominent “Negro” lips, an oblong skull and smooth black hair.

STORY

The history of Ancient Egypt is divided into the following eras: First (early 4 thousand BC) and Second (mid 4 thousand BC) predynastic periods; Early Kingdom (32nd–29th centuries BC); Old Kingdom (28th–23rd centuries BC); First Intermediate Period (23rd–21st centuries BC); Middle Kingdom (21st–18th centuries BC); Second transition period (late 18th – mid 16th centuries BC); New Kingdom (16th–11th centuries BC); Third Transition Period (11th–10th centuries BC); Late Kingdom (9th–7th centuries BC); era of Persian rule (late 6th–4th centuries BC).

The Nile Valley was developed by man back in the Paleolithic era. Sites of primitive hunters and gatherers have been discovered in Upper Egypt and in the Fayum oasis. During the Upper Paleolithic era (20–10 thousand BC) they settled throughout the valley. At that time the climate was wetter and cooler than now; Vast areas around the Nile, which had a number of tributaries, were covered with grass and shrubs. They were home to a large number of wild animals, hunting which remained the main occupation of the local tribes, who led a nomadic lifestyle. However, the cessation of the Ice Age and significant warming led to desertification of this area, which ended at the beginning of the Neolithic (New Stone Age). The surrounding tribes, mostly of Hamitic origin, were forced to gradually retreat to a narrowing strip of habitable land along the banks of the Nile. Population growth, coupled with a decline in animal and plant resources, forced hunters and gatherers to find new ways to obtain food. The presence of fertile soil, wild cereals and domesticated animals contributed to the emergence, starting from the end of the 6th millennium BC, of ​​agriculture and cattle breeding.

Neolithic tribes 5 thousand BC. (the Merimdian and El-Omar cultures in the Delta, the Fayum and Tasian cultures in Upper Egypt) do not yet know copper and continue to use stone tools. They raise small (sometimes even large) cattle and engage in primitive agriculture, making the first attempts to irrigate the soil; nevertheless, hunting and fishing continue to be their main source of subsistence.

At the end of the 5th – beginning of the 4th millennium BC. The Nile Valley enters the Chalcolithic (Copper Age) era. Objects made of copper (beads, piercings) were already found among the Badarians, who lived in Upper Egypt at the end of the 5th millennium BC. The Badaris achieve great success in cattle breeding, moving on to cattle breeding. The role of agriculture is increasing, and small irrigation canals are appearing. However, hunting and fishing remain important.

First Predynastic Period

First Predynastic period (first half of 4 thousand BC). At the beginning of 4 thousand BC. a sedentary agricultural way of life becomes dominant among the tribes of the Nile Valley (Amrat and Negad cultures). There is a significant population growth - the number and size of settlements are increasing, they are surrounded by walls. The scope of use of copper is expanding (not only for jewelry, but also for tools); objects made of gold appear. Social differentiation is still just emerging.

Second Predynastic Period

Second Predynastic (Gerzean) period (35–33 centuries BC). In the middle of 4 thousand BC. Egypt is entering a period of advanced Copper Age. This era is also called Gerzean (from the village of Gerze, near which an Eneolithic settlement was excavated). The Gerzeans are finally settling down; the leading role in their lives is played by cattle breeding and agriculture, the progress of which leads to the emergence of property inequality; Livestock is considered the main wealth. The agricultural community is transformed from a tribal community into a neighboring one; social differentiation occurs in it. A layer of “nobles” is distinguished, formed from the military elite (the defenders of the tribe - the leader, the strongest warriors), the property elite (the wealthiest and most enterprising community members), and ministers of worship. This layer dominates the bulk of farmers and pastoralists. Captured as a result of constant military clashes, prisoners form a still small category of slaves.

The urgent need to maintain and expand local irrigation systems contributed to the consolidation of communities into larger entities. Regardless of the way it happened (violent or peaceful), one of the communities inevitably occupied a dominant position in relation to the others; it was her settlement that turned into the administrative, military and religious center of unification, and her elite usurped the leading political, military and priestly functions. Gradually, the process of unification led to the emergence by the end of the 34th century. BC. large territorial entities - nomes, which turned out to be the first proto-states of Ancient Egypt. In the 33rd century. BC. the increased need to create a pan-Egyptian irrigation system led to a trend toward political unification of the entire Nile Valley. The result of the struggle of the nomes for political dominance was the emergence of two states - Lower Egyptian with its capital in Buto and Upper Egyptian with its capital in Nekhen (Hierakonpolis). The leading cult in Lower Egypt was the cult of Set, and in Upper Egypt the cult of Horus.

Early kingdom

Early Kingdom (32–29 centuries BC): “Zero”, I and II dynasties. The Lower Egyptian and Upper Egyptian kingdoms waged constant wars for control of the border territories. The military confrontation ended with the defeat of Lower Egypt by the Upper Egyptian king Narmer c. 3200 BC and the creation of a unified Egyptian state. Narmer combined the red crown of Lower Egypt and the white crown of Upper Egypt. The Narmer ("Zero") dynasty became the first ruling pan-Egyptian dynasty. It was replaced by the First Dynasty, which originated from the Upper Egyptian city of Tin (near Abydos). Its founder, Mina (Horus the Fighter), in order to unite the state, founded a new capital, Memphis, on the border of Lower and Upper Egypt. The reign of the First Dynasty became a period of relative internal stability, which allowed one of its representatives, Jer, to carry out a number of successful campaigns outside of Egypt. Gradually, control was established over the Sinai Peninsula. However, during the reign of the Second Dynasty, the separatist movement in Lower Egypt intensified. In an effort to suppress it, the kings resorted to both repression (the bloody suppression of the uprising in the Delta by King Khasekhemui) and a policy of reconciliation (some kings demonstratively took the name Set or both Set and Horus). Apparently, by the end of the reign of the Second Dynasty, Lower Egypt was finally conquered.

Ancient kingdom

Ancient Kingdom (28th–13th centuries BC): III–VI dynasties. Formed by the 28th century. BC. the social system was a clear pyramid, at the top of which stood the king, who had absolute power (legislative, executive, judicial) and was considered a god (the incarnation of the god Horus, the son of the god Ra). He was the autocratic ruler of Egypt, the supreme owner of the land and everything that lived and grew on it. The material basis of monarchical power was the extensive royal economy (“the king’s house”), which consisted of huge estates scattered throughout the Nile Valley. His very name was sacred and forbidden to be spoken; therefore he was called pharaoh - “per-o” (“great house”).

Below the pharaoh was the aristocracy, whose duty was to serve the pharaoh-god (courtiers), help him rule Egypt and carry out his will (officials), and honor him and his celestial relatives (priests). As a rule, representatives of the nobility simultaneously performed all three functions. Belonging to the upper class was hereditary. As part of the nobility, there are two main groups - the capital's high-ranking aristocracy and the rulers of nomes (nomarchs), - between which there was no clear line: often nomarchs held positions in the central apparatus, and senior officials ruled individual areas. The nobles had large land holdings, consisting of a “personal house” (land and property, inherited or acquired), and a conditional tenure granted by the pharaoh for the duration of their performance of certain positions. As priests, they gained control over vast temple farms. Estates that belonged to nobles and temples were subject to taxes and duties; in rare cases, the pharaoh, for special merits, exempted a dignitary or temple from them.

The lower layer consisted of communal peasants (nisutiu, khentiushe) and estate workers (meret, hemuu). Nisutiu sat on the land, owned tools and personal property, paid taxes and carried out duties in favor of the state. Hemuu performed various jobs in royal, temple or private households, using tools and raw materials from the master's court and receiving clothing and food for their work; lived in “villages” on estates. The Hemuu were organized into work units, whose leaders were considered civil servants. Work teams from temples and private farms were also used to perform government duties (construction of pyramids, irrigation structures, roads, transportation of goods, etc.). The position of the hemuu differed little from the position of the lowest social category of Egyptian society - slaves (bak), who consisted mainly of prisoners of war (the state had a negative attitude towards the enslavement of indigenous Egyptians). During this period, they had not yet formed a significant social stratum, and their role in the economy and society was modest.

The main function of the ancient Egyptian state was to mobilize the forces of society to carry out important economic, political or religious tasks (maintaining the irrigation system, organizing military campaigns, building religious buildings), which led to the emergence of a system of careful accounting and distribution of all labor and material resources. It was under the jurisdiction of a large and ramified state apparatus, which carried out its activities at three levels - central, provincial and local. The central administration was headed by a supreme dignitary (chati), who directed the activities of the executive and judicial institutions; at the same time, the army was removed from its jurisdiction. Various departments were subordinate to him: supervision of the irrigation system, livestock, artisans, organization of public works and collection of taxes, and the “six great courts” (courts). Each of them was divided into two divisions - for Upper and Lower Egypt. A special military department (“house of arms”) was responsible, if necessary, for convening a pan-Egyptian militia and for a system of fortresses scattered throughout the country; the army consisted of detachments of Egyptian infantry armed with bows and arrows, and auxiliary mercenary detachments (“peaceful Nubians”). The new administration, headed by nomarchs, copied the structure of the central one. The councils (jajat, kenbet) that governed the settlement-communities were subordinate to her; they monitored local irrigation systems and administered justice.

During the reign of the III dynasty (28th century BC), founded by Pharaoh Djoser, state centralization and royal power were strengthened: a unified irrigation system was created, the bureaucratic apparatus was expanded, an active foreign policy was pursued, a special cult of the pharaoh-god was established (giant tombs - pyramids). Pharaohs strive to rise above the aristocracy and make it completely dependent. First of all, they are trying to establish control over the nomarchs, eliminating the hereditary power of the nomarchs. However, this can only be achieved in the 4th dynasty (28–27 centuries BC), during which pharaonic absolutism reaches its peak, especially during the reign of Snofru, Khufu (Cheops), Djedefre, Khafre (Chephren) and Menkaure (Mykerinus): The practice of appointing nomarchs by the central government and their constant movement from nome to nome is established; leading positions in the central apparatus end up in the hands of representatives of the reigning house. The cult of the pharaoh acquires an exceptional character; Enormous labor and material resources are mobilized for the construction of giant pyramids. Aggression is growing in foreign policy; Its three main directions are finally determined - southern (Nubia), northeastern (Sinai, Palestine) and western (Libya). As a rule, campaigns are of a predatory nature (capturing prisoners and minerals); at the same time, Egypt seeks to establish systematic control over a number of territories for their economic development (Sinai, Nubia).

The construction of the pyramids and foreign policy expansion lead to an overstrain of the forces of Egyptian society and to a political crisis, as a result of which the IV dynasty is replaced by the V (26–15 centuries BC); its founder is Pharaoh Userkaf. Its representatives are reducing the scale of pyramid construction and making concessions to the capital's nobility (higher positions are no longer a monopoly of the reigning house). In order to unite society, the cult of the god Ra is given a national character (the concept of the origin of the pharaohs from Ra is affirmed). The stabilization of the internal political situation makes it possible to resume an active foreign policy: predatory campaigns in Asia and Libya continue, in the south the Egyptians reach the third threshold, expeditions are organized to the south of the Red Sea (Punt) and to Phenicia.

The first pharaohs of the VI dynasty (25th – mid-23rd century BC) – Teti, Piopi I, Merenra, Piopi II – continued their foreign policy aggression. However, under them, the power of the nome nobility increases, primarily in Upper Egypt; the positions of nomarchs again become hereditary; representatives of a number of noble families occupy high positions in the central government apparatus and enter into family relationships with the ruling house (nomarchs of Tina). Nomarchs are no longer buried near the royal tombs, but in nomes; their tombs are becoming more and more luxurious. The central government is gradually weakening, its economic opportunities are being reduced: the practice of immunity grants is spreading, and the nomarchs are gradually establishing control over the royal households. Under the last pharaohs of the VI dynasty, royal power came into complete decline. Political crisis of the mid-23rd century. BC. leads to its fall and the actual disintegration of the state into independent principalities.

First transition period

First transitional period (mid-23rd – mid-21st centuries): VII–X dynasties. During the reign of the VII and VIII dynasties, the power of the Memphis pharaohs was only nominal; Political anarchy reigned in Egypt. The loss of state unity caused the collapse of the general Egyptian irrigation system, which caused an economic crisis and mass famine; the northern provinces were periodically raided by Asian nomads and Libyans. The inability of the nomes to cope with economic difficulties on their own strengthened the unifying trend. The first contender for the role of “gatherer” of Egyptian lands was Heracleopolis, one of the largest cities in the north of Upper Egypt. Its rulers managed to subjugate the Delta and the Upper Egyptian region of Tin, repel the invasions of nomads and strengthen the northern borders; starting with Akhtoy (Kheti), they claimed the title of kings of all Egypt (IX–X dynasties). However, in its struggle for the unification of Egypt, the Kingdom of Heracleopolis met a rival in the person of the Theban Kingdom that had formed in the south, which controlled the Nile Valley from Abydos to the 1st Cataract. Their confrontation ended at the end of the 21st century. BC. the victory of Thebes under Pharaoh Mentuhotep, who founded the XI dynasty. The integrity of the Egyptian state was restored.

Middle Kingdom

Middle Kingdom (2005–1715 BC): Dynasties XI–XIII. The restoration of a strong centralized state made it possible to restore a unified irrigation system, ensure certain economic progress (a more advanced plow, a new breed of fine-wool sheep, the first bronze tools, paste glass), resume interrupted trade contacts and begin the development of wetlands in the Delta and in the Fayum Basin, which turned to the Fayum oasis. The period of greatest prosperity of the Middle Kingdom was the reign of the XII Dynasty (1963–1789 BC). Its founder Amenemhet I (1963–1943 BC) moved the capital from Thebes to the city of Ittawi (“Connecting Two Countries”), which he built on the border of Lower and Upper Egypt, finally establishing state unity. However, in their policy of centralization, Amenemhet I and his immediate successors Senusret I, Amenemhet II, Senusret II and Senusret III faced opposition from the hereditary nobility, which increased significantly during the First Intermediate Period; it closely linked with the provincial priesthood and controlled local military units and state property. The pharaohs restored the previous administrative apparatus, but the economic base of their power was limited: in size, the royal economy of the Middle Kingdom was significantly inferior to the royal economy of the era of the III–VI dynasties. In its struggle with the nomarchs, the XII Dynasty found support in the middle strata (“small”), actively attracting their representatives to public service (of which, for example, the royal guard was recruited - “accompanying the ruler”) and rewarding them with land, slaves and property. With the support of the “small”, Amenemhet III (1843–1798 BC) managed to break the power of the nome aristocracy, eliminating hereditary power in the nomes; A symbol of triumph over provincial separatism was the Labyrinth, built at the entrance to the Fayum oasis - a royal funeral temple in which statues of the nomian gods were collected.

The pharaohs of the XII dynasty resumed the active foreign policy of the rulers of the Old Kingdom. Amenemhet I and Senusret I invaded Nubia several times; it was finally conquered by Senusret III, who made the southern border of Egypt the fortresses of Semne and Kumme at the 2nd cataract of the Nile. Periodically, trips were made to Libya and Asia. The Sinai Peninsula again became an Egyptian province; Southern Palestine and part of Phenicia became dependent on Egypt.

The social system of the Middle Kingdom differed from the previous period in its greater mobility and the special role of the middle strata: the state facilitated the transition from one floor of the social ladder to another. The composition of the elite changed significantly: next to the hereditary metropolitan and new aristocracy, an influential layer of the service nobility established itself. Conditional holding of land for service became widespread. Middle-sized estates began to play a leading role in the economy. The number of small landowners has also increased. The working population (“royal people”) was the object of state accounting and labor regulation policies: upon reaching a certain age, all “royal people” were registered, distributed according to profession (farmers, artisans, warriors, etc.) and sent to work as in royal and temple estates, as well as the estates of large and medium-sized officials. The number of slaves increased, the main source of which remained wars. They were used primarily in medium-sized privately owned farms, whose owners usually benefited little from the centralized distribution of labor resources.

Despite the strengthening of royal power during the 12th dynasty, social and political tension remains in Egyptian society. Acute contradictions exist within the elite, between the center and the provinces, and the discontent of the “royal people” is deepening; the aristocracy periodically organizes conspiracies against the pharaohs (Amenemhat I and Amenemhat II died at the hands of the conspirators), the nomarchs raise uprisings (under Amenemhat I, Senusret I, Senusret II), political investigation is rampant. The first symptoms of the weakening of central power are found already under the last rulers of the XII dynasty (Amenemhet IV and Queen Nefrusebek). This process intensifies during the XIII Dynasty, when the throne becomes a plaything in the hands of rival factions of the nobility; Nevertheless, the state does not collapse, the administrative apparatus continues to function, and Egypt keeps Nubia under its control. Political instability and a sharply deteriorating economic situation, however, lead to approx. 1715 BC to a social explosion - an uprising of the lower classes: the rebels captured and destroyed the capital, killed the pharaoh, expropriated state grain reserves, destroyed tax lists and inventories, and persecuted officials and judges. This movement, eventually suppressed, dealt a mortal blow to the Middle Kingdom.

Second transition period

Second Transitional Period (1715 – ca. 1554 BC): XIV–XVI dynasties. After the fall of the XIII dynasty, Egypt splits into independent nomes. The XIV Dynasty, which claims to be the all-Egyptian dynasty and established itself in Xois, actually controls only part of the Delta. OK. 1675 BC Egypt is invaded by the Hyksos, who create in the mid-18th century. BC. a vast tribal union in the territory of Palestine and Northern Arabia, and subject it to terrible defeat. They capture the Delta and make the Avaris fortress in its eastern part their capital; Their success was facilitated by the fact that they, unlike the Egyptians, used horses in warfare. Hyksos leaders take the title of pharaoh (XV–XVI dynasties). However, they fail to achieve real subjugation of the entire Nile Valley; Only Lower Egypt is actually under their rule. Although some of the Upper Egyptian nomarchs recognize the rule of the Hyksos, this dependence remains rather formal, and it is limited to the payment of tribute. In the south of Upper Egypt, the independent Principality of Thebes is formed. Only at the beginning of the 17th century. BC. Hyksos pharaoh Khian manages to establish control over all of Upper Egypt. But after his death, Thebes regained independence, and the Theban rulers proclaimed themselves pharaohs (XVII dynasty). Its last representative, Kames, subjugates the rest of the Upper Egyptian nomes and, despite the opposition of the nobility, begins, with the support of ordinary soldiers, the struggle to expel the Hyksos. He makes a successful campaign into the Delta and forces them to retreat to Avaris. Kames's brother and heir Ahmose I achieves a decisive turning point in the war with foreigners: he wins several victories and captures Avaris after a three-year siege. The expulsion of the Hyksos ends with the capture of the Sharukhen fortress in southern Palestine ca. 1554 BC

New kingdom

New Kingdom (c. 1554 – c. 1075 BC): XVIII–XX dynasties.

Transformation of Egypt into a world power.

Ahmose I, the founder of the XVIII dynasty, strengthened his power by suppressing the uprising in the southern nomes, and restored the Egyptian state within the Middle Kingdom, making a campaign in Nubia and pushing the southern border to the 2nd cataract.

Under the first pharaohs of the 18th dynasty (c. 1554–1306 BC), a number of military reforms were carried out: under the influence of the Hyksos, the Egyptians created a new type of army - light war chariots (with two horses, a driver and an archer); a navy was built; more advanced types of weapons began to be used (massive straight and light sickle-shaped cutting swords, a powerful composite puff bow, arrows with copper tips, plate armor); a new army recruitment system was introduced (one warrior for every ten men); the proportion of foreign mercenaries increased. These reforms became the basis for territorial expansion, carried out on an unprecedented scale.

The beginning of an active policy of external aggression was laid by the third pharaoh of the 18th dynasty, Thutmose I (Dzhehutimes), who ruled in the second half of the 16th century. BC. Thutmose I expanded the territory of Egypt to the 3rd cataract. He also made a successful campaign in Syria, reaching the Euphrates, where he defeated the troops of Mitanni, a strong state in northern Mesopotamia. However, Syria and Palestine were not included in the Egyptian kingdom; With the support of the Mitanni, the Syrian and Palestinian rulers formed an anti-Egyptian coalition led by the Prince of Kadesh. The son and heir of Thutmose I, Thutmose II, brutally suppressed the uprising in Nubia and waged a stubborn struggle against the Asian nomads. During the reign of his widow Hatshepsut (1490–1469 BC), there was a temporary abandonment of the policy of conquest. However, with the accession to the throne of Thutmose III (1469–1436 BC), Egypt's foreign policy aggression reached its culmination. In 1468 BC Thutmose III invaded Syria and Palestine, defeated the united army of local princes at Megiddo and, after a seven-month siege, captured the city. From 1467 to 1448 BC he made more than fifteen trips to these lands. In 1457 BC The pharaoh crossed the Euphrates and destroyed a number of Mitannian fortresses in 1455 BC. inflicted a new defeat on the Mitannians. The campaign ended in 1448 BC. capture of Kadesh; the Palestinian-Syrian coalition ceased to exist. Mitanni recognized Syria, Phenicia and Palestine as Egypt's sphere of influence. The northern border of the Egyptian state became Carchemish on the Euphrates. At the same time, as a result of a successful fight against the Ethiopian tribes, Thutmose III pushed the southern border to the 4th cataract. The conquered lands were placed under the control of the “chief of the northern countries” and the “chief of the southern countries”; control over them was ensured by Egyptian garrisons. Babylon, Assyria, and the Hittite state, fearing Egyptian power, sent Thutmose III rich gifts, which he considered tribute.

His son and successor Amenhotep II spent most of his reign suppressing revolts by Syrian and Palestinian rulers; He brutally executed seven of them, and more than one hundred thousand people were sold into slavery. His son Thutmose IV made several punitive expeditions to Palestine and Syria and severely punished the rebel Nubians. To strengthen his position in the Eastern Mediterranean, he set a course for rapprochement with Mitanni and married a Mitanni princess. Under his successor Amenhotep III, Egyptian power over Syria and Palestine was finally established; the Hittites' attempt to provoke a rebellion among some Syrian princes ended in complete failure. The new Nubian uprising was easily suppressed. Egypt became the most powerful power in Western Asia.

Third transition period

Third Intermediate Period (1075–945 BC): XXI Dynasty. The division of Egypt led to the collapse of the single royal economy, the foundation of state centralization. The royal estates in the nomes ended up in the hands of the local nobility and priesthood. The conditional holdings of officials become their property. Egypt is turning into an arena of rivalry among regional aristocracy groups. Everywhere, especially in the south, the power of temples is increasing. There is no longer a force capable of consolidating society's resources to pursue an active foreign policy. Egypt ceases to be a great power in the Eastern Mediterranean and loses the last remnants of its foreign possessions; control even over heavily Egyptianized Nubia is weakening. Massive penetration of Libyans into Lower Egypt continues: they settle there in entire tribes, form the backbone of the Egyptian army, their leaders increasingly occupy the posts of nomarchs and enter into family relationships with the local secular and spiritual nobility.

Later kingdom

Later Kingdom (945–525 BC): Dynasties XXII–XXVI. Libyan Egypt (945–712 BC): XXII–XXIV dynasties. The libization of Lower Egypt naturally ends with the accession in 945 BC. to the throne of the representative of the Libyan aristocracy Shoshenq I, the founder of the XXII (Libyan) dynasty (945–722 BC). He legitimizes his power by marrying one son to the daughter of the last pharaoh of the XXI dynasty, and subjugates Upper Egypt by making another son the high priest of Amun in Thebes. The capital is moved to Bubast in the southeastern part of the Delta. Shoshenq I returns to the aggressive foreign policy of the New Kingdom pharaohs: c. 930 BC he intervenes in the struggle between the kingdoms of Judah and Israel on the side of the latter, invades Palestine and captures Jerusalem. He also manages to regain control of Nubia. Significant resources at the disposal of the royal authorities allowed Shoshenq I and his immediate successors to expand palace and temple construction. The XXII dynasty relies primarily on the Libyan army; in addition, its representatives strive to gain the support of the priesthood, primarily in the north, generously donating lands, movable and immovable property, slaves, various privileges to the temples and making rich sacrifices.

In the 9th century. BC. The weakening of the power of the Libyan pharaohs began. The Libyan nobility strengthened its position so much that it no longer needed patronage from the center. Lower Egypt actually fell apart into many small semi-independent possessions led by Libyan nomarchs and military leaders; this was facilitated by rivalry within the ruling dynasty, whose representatives created the most powerful principalities (Heracleopolis, Memphis, Tanis). Power over Upper Egypt remained purely formal. The narrowing of the material capabilities of the pharaohs of the XXII dynasty determined their inability to prevent Assyrian aggression in Syria and provide effective assistance to their main ally, the kingdom of Damascus; in 840 BC it was destroyed. In 808 BC. the ruler of Tanis refused to recognize the supremacy of the XXII Dynasty and accepted the title of pharaoh, founding the XXIII Dynasty (808–730 BC). In the 8th century BC. The kings of the XXII dynasty really controlled only the Bubast region.

In the middle of the 8th century. BC. Egypt faced a new strong enemy - the Napatan kingdom (Kush), which arose on the territory of Nubia and extended its power from the 6th to the 1st Nile cataract. Kushite influence in Upper Egypt increased significantly under King Kasht, who achieved the elevation of his daughter to the rank of high priestess ("wife of Amun") in Thebes. His son and successor Pianhi, with the support of the Theban priesthood, subjugated the southern regions of Egypt. The Kushite danger prompted the Libyan princes of the North to organize a coalition led by Tefnakht, ruler of Sais and Ision in the western Delta. Tefnakht established control over the west of Lower Egypt and the north of Upper Egypt and caused the border principality of Hermopolis in the central part of the country to break away from the Kushites. But in 730 BC. Piankhi defeated the Libyan forces in the battles of Thebes and Heracleopolis, captured Hermopolis, won a decisive victory near Memphis and took this city. The Lower Egyptian rulers, including the Bubast pharaoh Osorkon and Tefnakht himself, had to recognize the power of the Napat king.

Kushite rule in the northern regions of Egypt was, however, fragile: after his victory, Pianhi returned to Napata, leaving no Kushite garrisons in the Lower Egyptian cities. By 722 BC The Delta was again in the hands of Tefnakht, who assumed the title of Pharaoh (722–718 BC) and founded the XXIV Dynasty; his son Bakenranf (Bokhoris) (718–712 BC), subjugated the central regions of the country. Tefnakht and Bakenranf relied on ordinary Libyan warriors, as well as the middle and lower strata of the Egyptian population. In an effort to strengthen the army and expand the tax base, they fought against debt slavery and prevented the growth of large landownership (laws against luxury, on the liability of debtors for their debt only with their property, on limiting loan interest, on the prohibition of enslaving native Egyptians). This policy alienated the priesthood and aristocracy from the XXIV Dynasty, who preferred to support the Kushites. In 712 BC the Napatan king Shabaka defeated Bakenranf and took possession of the Delta; Bakenranf was captured and burned. A single Kushite-Egyptian kingdom was formed.

Kushite Egypt and Assyrian conquest

Kushite Egypt and Assyrian conquest (712–655 BC): XXV Dynasty. Shabaka (712–697 BC) became the founder of the XXV (Ethiopian) Dynasty (712–664 BC). He headed for a close alliance with the priesthood. He moved his residence from Napata to Memphis, the center of the cult of Ptah, and introduced his children into the highest Theban priesthood. However, at the end of the 8th century. BC. the threat from Assyria intensified, which in 722 BC. destroyed the kingdom of Israel. In 701 BC the Assyrian king Sennacherib invaded Judea; Shabaka tried to help the Judah king Hezekiah, but the Egyptian army was defeated at Altaka; Pharaoh's sons were captured, and Hezekiah submitted to the conquerors. Under Shabaka's second successor Taharqa (689–664 BC), Egypt became a direct target of Assyrian aggression. Taharqa encouraged the Palestinian and Phoenician kings to break away from Assyria. In response, the Assyrian king Esarhaddon in 674 BC, having previously ensured the loyalty of the Arabian tribes, made a trip to Egypt, but Taharqa managed to prevent him from penetrating deep into the country. In 671 BC. Esarhaddon again invaded Egypt, broke the resistance of Taharqa, took and plundered Memphis. The Assyrians took possession of the country as far as Thebes and turned it into a province; they placed their garrisons in the cities, imposed heavy tribute and introduced the cult of the god Ashur; at the same time, the northern Libyan dynasts, who recognized the power of Assyria, retained their possessions. Esarhaddon took the title of king of Egypt and Kush.

Soon Taharqa, having gathered significant forces in the south, expelled the Assyrian troops from Egypt and liberated Memphis; however, the Libyan princes did not support him. Esarhaddon moved his troops to Egypt and defeated the Kushite army on the Palestinian border. Pursued by the Assyrians, Taharqa fled first to Thebes and then to Nubia. Egypt was divided into twenty districts led by nomarchs from the local nobility under the control of the Assyrian military and civil administration.

The heavy Assyrian oppression caused discontent among various strata of Egyptian society. In 667 BC. a group of northern princes under the leadership of Necho, ruler of Sais and Memphis, formed an extensive conspiracy against the conquerors. Necho tried to establish contacts with Taharqa, but his messengers were intercepted by the Assyrians. Severe repressions fell on the rebellious cities, but the new Assyrian king Ashurbanipal pardoned the leaders of the conspiracy; he returned Necho to his possessions, and appointed his son Psammetichus as ruler of Athribus in the southern Delta. This allowed the Assyrians to strengthen their position among the Libyan nobility.

After the death of Taharqa in 664 BC. his successor Tanutamon decided to reconquer Egypt. In 663 BC with the support of the population and especially the priesthood, he easily captured Upper Egypt, and then took Memphis. But he failed to subjugate the northern princes, who overwhelmingly remained loyal to Assyria. Ashurbanipal quickly marched towards Egypt. Tanutamon was unable to organize resistance and fled to Nubia. The Assyrians subjected Thebes, the main ally of the Kushites, to a terrible defeat. After some time, Tanutamon regained control of the southern regions of Upper Egypt and restored Thebes, which, however, forever lost its former political, religious and cultural significance.

Sais Egypt

Sais Egypt (655–525 BC): XXVI Dynasty. In 664 BC Necho's son Psammetich becomes the ruler of Sais, the largest economic center of the Delta. Having significant material resources, he formed a strong mercenary army from the Carians and Asia Minor Greeks and in the early 650s BC. united Lower Egypt under his rule, and in 656–655 BC. subjugated Upper Egypt and made his daughter high priestess of Amun in Thebes. Having restored state unity, Psammetichus I (664–610 BC) expelled the Assyrian garrisons from the country and proclaimed himself pharaoh, founding the XXVI (Sais) dynasty (655–525 BC). The northern priesthood became his support, which helped him suppress the separatism of the Libyan dynasts. The pharaoh's patronage of foreign mercenaries, to whom he provided lands for settlement, strained his relations with warriors of Libyan-Egyptian origin. He deprived them of a number of privileges, which provoked a series of riots and even the withdrawal of part of the army to Nubia.

Psammetichus I pursued a course towards the revival of ancient customs and way of life. At the same time, he encouraged trade with other countries and provided support to foreign merchants, especially the Greeks, whom he allowed to found the colony of Naucratis in the western Delta. In his foreign policy, the pharaoh in 650–630 BC. focused on an alliance with the Babylonian kingdom and Lydia, trying to prevent the restoration of Assyrian rule. However, from the 620s BC. he began to support the rapidly weakening Assyria, which was barely holding back the onslaught of the Babylonian-Median coalition. True, he was unable to help her during the invasion of Western Asia by the Scythian nomads, from whom he himself was forced to pay off. Psammetichus I showed great concern for strengthening the borders of Egypt, especially the northeastern ones, where he built a number of strong fortresses.

After the death of Ahmose II in 526 BC. the throne was taken by his son Psammetichus III (526–525 BC). A few months later, the Persian king Cambyses (529–522 BC) invaded Egypt and, thanks to the treason of the Greek mercenary commander Phanes and some Egyptian commanders, won in the spring of 525 BC. decisive victory over Psammetichus III at Pelusium. The army retreated to Memphis, but the commander of the Egyptian fleet, Ujagorresnet, surrendered Sais to the Persians without a fight and allowed the enemy squadron to penetrate deep into the Delta, which led to the surrender of the Egyptian troops and the fall of Memphis; The pharaoh and his family were captured. The entire country up to the 1st threshold was under the rule of the Persians. A revolt that broke out in Egypt in 524 BC. After the failure of Cambyses' attempts to conquer Cyrene and Nubia, it was brutally suppressed: the Persian king executed Psammetichus III and destroyed the temples whose priests supported the rebels.

Egypt in the Achaemenid era

Egypt in the Achaemenid era (525–332 BC): XXVII–XXX dynasties. Period of first Persian rule (525–404 BC): XXVII (Persian) Dynasty. In the first decades of Persian rule (under Cambyses and Darius I), Egypt occupied a privileged position within the Achaemenid Empire. The Persian power over Egypt was in the nature of a personal union: in August 525 BC. Cambyses took the title of pharaoh; The Achaemenids became the XXVII dynasty of Egypt. Persian kings were crowned with the Egyptian crown and used the traditional Egyptian dating of reigns. The Persians allowed the Egyptians to maintain their religion and their customs. Although the government of the country was concentrated in the hands of a Persian satrap with a residence in Memphis, and Persian garrisons were stationed in the main cities, a number of senior positions remained with the Egyptians. Cambyses compensated the temples for damage caused by the Persians during the conquest. Darius I (522–486 BC) carried out intensive temple construction; under him, the construction of a canal between the Mediterranean and Red Seas was completed. This policy was largely dictated by the strategic and economic value of Egypt for the Persians: it was one of the most profitable satrapies - the amount of taxes received from it annually amounted to seven hundred talents of silver.

Until the mid-480s BC. Egypt remained loyal, except for the separatist uprising of the satrap Ariand during the period of dynastic strife in Persia in 522–521 BC. However, the increase in taxes at the end of the reign of Darius I and the deportation of Egyptian artisans to Persia for the construction of royal palaces in Susa and Persepolis caused in October 486 BC. a massive uprising that the new Persian king Xerxes (486–465 BC) managed to suppress only in January 484 BC. Xerxes dealt harshly with the rebels and radically changed his policy towards Egypt: he did not accept the title of pharaoh, thereby annulling the personal union, carried out widespread confiscations of temple property, and abandoned the practice of appointing Egyptians to administrative positions. This provoked a rise in anti-Persian sentiment.

In 461 BC one of the Libyan princes of the western Delta, Inar, rebelled against Persian rule; he was provided with military assistance by the Greeks, led by the Athenians, who fought the Persians. The united Greco-Egyptian army won in 459 BC. victory over the Persians at Papremis, took Memphis and captured most of the Nile Valley. But in 455 BC. A Persian army of three hundred thousand under the command of Megabyzus, supported by a strong fleet (three hundred ships), invaded Egypt and defeated the allied forces. Greek and Egyptian troops took up defensive positions on the island. Prosopitida in the Delta, but Megabyzus succeeded in June 454 BC. break into the island and defeat them; The Athenian squadron that arrived to help the defenders was destroyed in the Mendesian branch of the Nile. The remnants of the Athenians fled to Cyrene. Inar was captured and given a painful execution.

Began in the second half of the 5th century. BC. the process of weakening the Achaemenid power was accompanied by an intensification of the separatist movement in Egypt. In 405 BC Amirteus, the ruler of Sais, rebelled. He won several victories over the Persians and established control over the Delta. Due to the internecine war that broke out in Persia between King Artharxerxes II and his brother Cyrus the Younger, the Persians were unable to send large forces to suppress the uprising, and Amyrtaeus by the beginning of the 5th century. BC. liberated all of Egypt.

Period of Egyptian independence

Period of Egyptian independence (405–342 BC): Dynasties XXVIII–XXX. Amirteus (405–398 BC), although he founded the XXVIII (Sais) dynasty, turned out to be its only representative. It was succeeded by the XXIX Dynasty (398–380 BC), which originated from Mendes in the eastern Delta. After a period of omnipotence of the temple and secular nobility (398–393 BC), filled with palace coups, the throne was seized by Akoris (393–380 BC), during which the internal and external position of Egypt was strengthened. Akoris created a defensive line on the northeastern border, entered into an anti-Persian alliance with Cyrene, Barca, Pisidia and Cyprus, and extended his influence to Palestine and Phenicia. In 385–382 BC he successfully repelled the Persian invasion.

In 380 BC the throne was usurped by Nekhtnebef (Nectaneb) of Sevennites in the eastern Delta, who founded the XXX Dynasty (380–342 BC). Nekhtheneb I (380–363 BC) managed in 373 BC. prevent a new Persian attempt to regain control of Egypt; he was helped in this by the heroic defense of Pelusium, the mediocrity of the Persian commander and the flood of the Nile. Realizing the limitations of his military capabilities, he concluded an alliance treaty with the most powerful Greek states - Athens and Sparta. In domestic politics, Nekhtheneb I patronized the priesthood in every possible way: he generously donated temples, provided them with tax benefits, involved priests in solving public affairs and spared no money on temple construction. His son and heir Takh (363–361 BC) abandoned his father's priestly course. Needing funds to pursue an active foreign policy, he forced the temples to provide him with a large loan, causing sharp discontent among religious circles. He also raised old and introduced new emergency taxes and forced the entire population to hand over all gold and silver to the treasury to offset future taxes. This allowed him to assemble a huge army (eighty thousand Egyptians and eleven thousand Greek mercenaries). Taking advantage of the rebellion of the Asia Minor satraps against the Persian king Artaxerxes II, Takh invaded Phenicia and Syria, but an uprising broke out in Egypt, the success of which was facilitated by the hostility of various social strata to the policies of the pharaoh and the support of the Spartans; his relative Nekhtgorheb (Nectaneb II) was proclaimed the new king; Tahu had to flee to the court of the Persian king.

Nekhtgorheb (361–342 BC) completely broke with the course of his predecessor: he withdrew the Egyptian army from Syria and began to fully patronize the priesthood (the construction of temples in all parts of the country, rich gifts and sacrifices). Under him, Egypt was weakened militarily, which facilitated Persian aggression. Persian campaign in 350 BC failed not because of the resistance of the Egyptians, but because of the inept actions of the guides during the army’s transition through the desert and because of the Nile flood. In 345 BC Nekhtgorheb sent troops to help Sidon, which had abandoned the Persians, but the mercenaries went over to the enemy’s side. In winter 343/342 BC Persian king Artaxerxes III invaded Egypt. The pharaoh concentrated significant forces near Pelusium (sixty thousand Egyptians and forty thousand Libyan and Greek mercenaries), but the Persian fleet managed to break into the Delta and ended up in the rear of Nekhtgorheb; the pharaoh had to retreat to Memphis. In the army, feuds between Egyptian soldiers and mercenaries intensified; The Greeks began to go over to the side of the Persians and surrender their most important fortresses to them. In this situation, Nekhtgorheb, without fighting a single battle, fled to the south; by the end of 342 BC Artaxerxes III captured Lower and part of Upper Egypt; The pharaoh held only a few southern regions.

Second period of Persian rule

Second period of Persian rule (342–332 BC). The restoration of Persian rule in Egypt was accompanied by brutal repressions against the local population: the Persians destroyed a number of cities, confiscated a significant part of the temple treasures, and desecrated religious shrines. After the death of Nekhtgorheb in 341 BC. they subjugated the southern part of Egypt, but their power turned out to be very fragile. Already ok. 337 BC a certain Khabbash rebelled, captured Memphis, expelled the Persians and took the title of pharaoh. Although in 335 BC. the new Persian king Darius III restored power over Egypt; three years later, Persian rule finally collapsed as soon as the new conqueror, Alexander the Great, approached the banks of the Nile. From the end of 332 BC Egypt became part of the world Macedonian power. The Hellenistic period of its history began.

Culture.

For thousands of years, ancient Egyptian culture was characterized by relative isolation and self-sufficiency, and was little susceptible to external influences. She was characterized by deep conservatism and loyalty to anciently established principles; new trends invariably encountered strong resistance. At its core, it embodied man's fear of uncontrollable natural elements and admiration for the power of the pharaoh as the organizer and guardian of the world order. The leading image of Egyptian culture was the image of the Great River - the Nile - and its leading idea was the idea of ​​eternity. The concept of frozen time and frozen space was expressed in its perfect form in the most famous monuments of Egyptian genius - the pyramids.

Religion.

Egyptian religion is difficult to present in a systematic form, for its essence lies not in theology, but in cult. It is extremely diverse; theology was unable to exert a decisive unifying influence on it.

Folk beliefs and cults existed long before the emergence of the state; traces of them are found as early as 6–4 thousand years ago. BC. The early form of Egyptian religion is characterized by the deification of the surrounding world and all its elements (trees, animals, dwellings, forces of nature, etc.) and the special vitality of the animal cult. Initially, the Egyptians revered the animals themselves, endowing them with magical properties: the cult of the hawk and cat was widespread, and in some areas they worshiped the crocodile and hippopotamus. Later, animals began to be seen as the embodiment of certain gods: a black bull with white spots personified the god of fertility Apis (Memphis), a crocodile - the god of water and the flood of the Nile Sebek (Fayum), an ibis - the god of wisdom Thoth (Hermopolis), a lioness - the goddess of war and the scorching sun Sekhmet (Memphis), the cat - the goddess of joy and fun Bast (Bubast), the falcon - the god of hunting Horus (Bekhdet), etc. Gradually, the pantheon became anthropomorphized, but zoomorphic features, as a rule, were preserved and coexisted with anthropomorphic ones: He turned from an ibis into a man with the head of an ibis, Bast from a cat into a woman with a cat's head, Horus from a falcon into a man with a falcon's head, etc. The bull and the snake were of particular importance. It was believed that in the beginning all gods and goddesses were bulls and cows of different colors. The cult of the bull in ancient times was associated with the veneration of the leader of the tribe, and after the emergence of the state it was combined with the cult of the pharaoh: thus, at the festival in honor of the thirtieth anniversary of his reign, the pharaoh appeared in clothes with a bull's tail tied to it at the back. The snake personified both evil (Apop, the enemy of the Sun) and good (the fertility goddess Renenutet, the goddess of Lower Egypt Uto).

Over time, each community develops its own pantheon of local gods, embodied in heavenly bodies, stones, animals, plants, etc. Among them, the god-head of the local pantheon stands out, the creator of the given territory and the people living on it, their lord and patron - the solar deities Atum (Heliopolis) and Horus (Edfu), gods of agriculture and fertility Set (eastern Delta), Amon (Thebes), Min (Koptos), etc. Then a special cult of the god of burial, the lord of the “city of the dead” (necropolis), arose - Sokar in Memphis, Anubis in Siut, Khentiamenti in Abydos. Later, general Egyptian gods appear, not associated with a specific area - Ra (Sun), Akh (Moon), Nut (Sky), Geb (Earth), Hapi (Nile).

At the same time, some local cults spread beyond the boundaries of their communities: thanks to migrations and conquests, the gods move after their worshipers to new territories, where they are identified or connected by kinship with local gods. As a result, divine triads are created: in Thebes, to the married couple of the god of earth and fertility Amun and the goddess of burials Meritseger, the god of war Mentu from the neighboring city of Hermont is added as a son, and then Meritseger is replaced by the goddess of the eastern part of the Theban district Mut, and Mentu is replaced by the moon god Khonsu from another area adjacent to Thebes (Theban triad); in Memphis, the earth god Ptah merges with the funeral god Sokar, then acquires a wife in the person of the war goddess Sekhmet from neighboring Latopolis, who turns into the sky goddess, and her son, the vegetation god Nefertum, becomes their common son (Memphian triad). The most striking example of the absorption of some gods by others with the concomitant usurpation of functions is Osiris, the patron god of the city of Busiris, who assimilated with the Busiris god Dedu, with the god of the Nile from neighboring Mendes and with the Abydos god of burials Khentiamenti; he eventually became the deity of the Nile, the productive forces of nature and the underworld; the center of his cult moved to Abydos.

At the next stage, the pan-Egyptian gods converge with the most influential local gods related to them: Ra is identified with the solar deities Atum and Horus, Akh with the lunar god Thoth, Nut with the heavenly deity Hathor, and Hapi with Osiris. With the unification of the state, the cult of the supreme god is born, who becomes the main deity of the capital or hometown of the ruling dynasty. At the same time, the importance of the deities of the largest centers increases - the Memphis Ptah, the Abydos Osiris, the Heliopolis Atum.

With the reign of the Fifth Dynasty, which originated from Heliopolis, Atum-Ra was proclaimed the main Egyptian deity, and the solar cult spread throughout the Nile Valley, although it did not manage to suppress all local cults, especially in the central and southern provinces. The first theological concept is created, the goal of which is to turn as many gods as possible into solar ones and identify them with Ra. This fate befell the gods of the earth and fertility Ptah, Mina, the gods of the Nile Osiris and Khnum. A semi-monotheistic system arises in which different deities are different functions or different stages of the existence of one single god, mysterious and inaccessible: Ra the father is yesterday’s sun, Ra the son is today’s; the divine beetle Khepera - morning, Ra - midday, Atum - evening, Osiris - hidden in the west (dead). A cycle of solar myths is formed, connecting the act of creation with the birth of the sun from a lotus flower or from a huge celestial cow; the sun is considered as a demiurge: the first gods Shu (air) and Tefnut (moisture) appear as a result of the self-fertilization of the sun, which swallowed its own seed, and people - from its tears. The first generations of gods form the Heleopolian Ennead (nine), which is revered throughout Egypt. A cycle of myths about the solar gods arises, which reflect ideas about the change of seasons and days (the myth about the departure and return of Ra’s daughter Tefnut to Egypt, marking the beginning and end of drought, the myth about the daily birth and swallowing of the sun by the sky goddess, etc.) and about the struggle of the sun with darkness and evil (the myth of the victory of Ra over the serpent Apep). Sanctuaries of Ra are being built everywhere, around which a large number of priests are concentrated.

In the era of the Middle Kingdom, the solar cult successfully conquered Upper Egypt: the Fayum Sebek turns into Sebek-Ra, the Theban Amun into Amun-Ra. The cult of Amun-Ra takes on special significance due to the increased political and economic role of Thebes. In the era of the New Kingdom, it reaches its peak, which even Akhenaten’s religious reforms cannot prevent. Amon-Ra is considered in this period as a demiurge and as the king of the gods; the ruling pharaoh is considered his son. In the southern regions, the Theban priesthood creates a real theocratic regime.

At the same time, from the period of the Middle Kingdom, the cult of Osiris as the god of resurrecting and dying nature and as the ruler of the underworld began to compete with solar cults; a cycle of myths about him, about his wife Isis and his son Horus spreads (the murder of Osiris by his brother Set, the evil god of the desert, Isis’ search and mourning of her husband’s body, Horus’s victory over Set and his resurrection of his father). By the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. the cult of Osiris becomes the focus of all funeral beliefs. If during the era of the ancient kingdom only the deceased pharaoh was identified with Osiris, then in the Middle Kingdom every dead Egyptian was identified.

Ideas about the afterlife.

The Egyptians considered the afterlife to be a direct continuation of the earthly life. According to them, a person consisted of a body (het), a soul (ba), a shadow (khaybet), a name (ren) and an invisible double (ka). The most ancient was the idea of ​​ka, which was born with a person, relentlessly followed him everywhere, formed an integral part of his being and personality, but did not disappear with his death and could continue life in the grave depending on the degree of preservation of the body. It was this latter belief that formed the basis of all funeral rites: in order to protect the body from decay and preserve the ka, it was turned into a mummy using embalming and hidden in a closed room of the tomb; Statues of the deceased were installed nearby, into which the ka could move in the event of the unforeseen destruction of the mummy; terrible spells were supposed to protect her from snakes and scorpions. Believing that the ka could die of hunger and thirst or leave the grave and take revenge on the living, relatives filled the tomb with provisions, carved images of food and clothing on its walls, brought funeral gifts and sacrifices, and uttered magical spells-requests for the gift of everything necessary to the deceased. The bliss of the deceased also depended on the preservation of his name (ren) in the memory of descendants, so it was carved on the walls of the tomb; erasing a name was considered a great sacrilege. The soul (ba) was represented in the form of a bird or grasshopper; she was not associated with a grave existence and could freely leave the dead body, soar to heaven and live there among the gods. Later, the belief in the ba’s wanderings on earth and in the underworld was born; to protect her from all kinds of underground monsters, there were special prayers and spells. As for the shadow (khaybet), there are very few mentions of it.

In Egypt there was no single idea of ​​the afterlife. According to the most common Abydos version, the kingdom of the dead is the kingdom of Osiris, where a person goes after death to be reborn to life. There, among the fertile fields on which huge grains grow, he serves Osiris, as he served Pharaoh on earth. To facilitate his work, starting from the Middle Kingdom, many figurines of workers were placed in the tomb, who, thanks to the spells written on them, could replace the deceased. This kingdom was located in the “fields of Earu,” which the Egyptians placed either in unexplored lands (undeveloped areas of the Nile Valley, Phenicia) or in heaven (northeastern celestial country). To get into it, one had to either swim across the river of the dead on the ferry of the gods, or fly into the sky as a bird, or go through a gap in the western mountains.

According to the Memphis version, the kingdom of the dead - a land of sleep and darkness ruled by the god Sokar - was a huge grotto or quarry located in the depths of the Libyan desert. The solar Heliopolis tradition considered the best place for the dead to be the boat of Ra, in which they can avoid danger and enjoy complete bliss, even during her nightly journeys through the underground kingdom (duat), separated from the Nile Valley by high mountains.

In the era of the New Kingdom, an attempt was made to systematize the doctrine of the kingdom of the dead, combining the Abydos and Heliopolis traditions based on the theology of Amon-Ra. Its authors abandon the idea of ​​the soul being on earth and identify the afterlife with the underworld. It consists of twelve areas-rooms, the gates of which are guarded by gigantic snakes; each of them is controlled by one of the ancient funeral gods (Sokar, Osiris, etc.). The supreme ruler of the entire kingdom is Amon-Ra, who every night sails through the duat on his boat, thereby bringing great consolation to its inhabitants.

Since ancient times, the Egyptians believed that the deceased could achieve anything with the help of magic (get into the kingdom of the dead, get rid of hunger and thirst), i.e. his fate does not depend in any way on his earthly existence. But later the idea of ​​an afterlife appears (chapter 125 Books of the Dead ): in front of Osiris, seated on the throne, Horus and his assistant Anubis weigh the heart of the deceased on scales balanced by truth (the image of the goddess of justice Maat), and Thoth writes the result on the boards; the righteous is rewarded with a happy life in the fields of Earu, and the sinner is devoured by the monster Amt (a lion with the head of a crocodile). Only the one who was obedient and patient on earth was recognized as righteous, “who did not steal, did not encroach on temple property, did not rebel, and did not speak evil against the king.”

Funeral ceremony

began with mummification. The entrails of the deceased were removed and placed in special vessels (canopic jars), which were handed over to the protection of the gods. Instead of a heart, a stone scarab beetle was placed. The body was rubbed with soda and asphalt, swaddled in canvas and placed in a stone or wooden coffin (sometimes two coffins), which was covered with magical images and inscriptions. Then, accompanied by relatives, friends, priests and mourners, he was transported to the west bank of the Nile, where the necropolis was usually located. The main ceremony took place in front of the tomb or at its entrance. There the mystery of Osiris was played out, during which the priests performed a rite of purification of the mummy or statue of the deceased; they killed two bulls, whose thighs and hearts they offered as gifts to the deceased. This was followed by the ritual of opening the mouth and eyes; in this way the deceased received the opportunity to use the gifts brought to him. Then the coffin was carried to the interior of the tomb; the entrance to it was walled up. In the front part, a feast was held, in which, as they believed, the deceased himself took part.

Language and writing.

The language of the ancient Egyptians belonged to the Semitic-Hamitic language family. In its development, it went through several stages: Ancient Egyptian (Old Kingdom period), Middle Egyptian (classical), New Egyptian (16th–8th centuries BC), Demotic (8th BC – 5th century AD. ) and Coptic language (3rd–7th centuries AD). It was spoken by the indigenous population of the Nile Valley, and it practically did not spread beyond its borders.

The hieroglyphs were read from right to left. They were applied to stone surfaces (carved or, less commonly, painted), on wooden boards and sometimes on leather scrolls, as well as from the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. on papyrus. Papyrus was made from the fibrous plant of the same name from the Nile backwaters, the stems of which were cut lengthwise, laid in rows edge to edge, a second layer was laid across the first layer and pressed; the layers were glued together by the juice of the plant itself. Papyrus was very expensive; it was used sparingly, often the old inscription was erased and a new one (palimpsest) was applied on top of it. They wrote on it with a stick made from the stem of a calamus (swamp plant) with a split end; the ink was of organic origin; The main text was painted in black, and the beginning of a line and sometimes a phrase was painted in red. the words were not separated from each other.

The Egyptians were passionate lovers of writing. They covered the internal and external walls of tombs and temples, obelisks, steles, statues, images of gods, sarcophagi, vessels and even writing instruments and staves with hieroglyphs. The craft of scribes was highly regarded; There were special schools for their training.

Already in the era of the Old Kingdom, labor-intensive hieroglyphic writing could not satisfy the growing economic and cultural demands of society. This contributed to the simplification of signs and the emergence of schematic hieroglyphs. A new type of writing arose - hieroglyphic cursive writing (first bookish and then business), which was called hieratic (“priestly”), although not only sacred, but also most secular texts were written with it. During the Middle Kingdom, classical hieroglyphic writing was used only for inscriptions on stone, while hieratic writing monopolized papyri. The process of further reduction and simplification of signs led in the 8th century. BC. to the birth, based on business cursive, demotic (“folk”) writing, intended for everyday use: several characters merge into one; they finally lose their pictorial character; more than twenty simple signs appear, denoting individual consonant sounds - the germ of the alphabet; nevertheless, hieroglyphs remain an important component of demotic writing. The pharaohs of the 16th dynasty made an attempt to revive the old hieroglyphic writing. However, with the decline of the ancient Egyptian religious cult and the disappearance of the priestly caste, it was forgotten by the beginning of our era. In the 2nd–3rd centuries. AD In Egypt, an alphabetical type of writing was formed - Coptic. The Coptic alphabet consisted of twenty-four letters of the classical Greek alphabet and seven letters of the demotic script.

Literature.

Most of the monuments of Egyptian literature have been lost, since papyrus, on which literary texts were usually written, was a very short-lived material.

Egyptian literature was characterized by a strict continuity of genres. It reflected the essential features of the Egyptian mentality - ideas about the absolute power of the gods and pharaoh, man's dependence and defenselessness before them, the connection of earthly life with the afterlife. She has always been strongly influenced by religion, but she has never limited herself to theology and has developed a wide variety of genres. The enrichment of its symbolic and figurative system was facilitated by the use of hieroglyphic writing and its connection with theatrical religious performances. There was practically no concept of authorship in it, with the exception of didactic literature, which was the most respected genre.

Written Egyptian literature dates back to the 4th millennium BC. It had a strong folklore basis (work songs, parables, sayings, fairy tales). The earliest monuments that have reached us date back to the period of the Old Kingdom. Among them stand out Pyramid Texts, the oldest collection of magical formulas and sayings in history, the roots of which go back to the pre-dynastic era; they are permeated with the passionate desire of mortals to achieve immortality. A biographical genre emerges: at first, these are tombstone inscriptions designed to perpetuate the name of the deceased and initially containing a simple listing of his titles, positions and sacrificial gifts, gradually (by the time of the V-VI dynasties) they turn into real biographies. During the III–V dynasties, didactic literature was born, represented by the genre of teachings ( Teachings of Ptahhotep, preserved in a manuscript from the Middle Kingdom). A cycle of tales about Pharaoh Khufu and sorcerers is associated with the era of the IV–V dynasties. The surviving routine of the Memphis temple performance suggests the existence of a protodramatic genre. The most significant monument of religious poetry of this era is a hymn in honor of the sky goddess Nut.

Egyptian literature flourished during the Middle Kingdom. The didactic genre is widespread: Teachings of the King of Heracleopolis to his son Merikara, dating back to the First Transition Period, and Teachings of Amenemhat I(XII Dynasty) are real political treatises on the art of government. Instructions of a social and professional nature are also written ( Akhtoy's teaching about the superiority of the scribe's profession over all others). The genre of political prophecy emerges ( Neferti's prophecy). Poetic poetry belongs to political and journalistic literature Sayings of Ipuser(an accusatory appeal to Pharaoh about the disasters of Egypt). The autobiographical genre culminates in The story of Sinuhet- a highly artistic biography of a nobleman of the early XII dynasty. In the field of fairy-tale and fantasy literature, a new type of tales about overseas travels is being created ( The Tale of the Castaway). An everyday story is born ( The Tale of the Eloquent Peasant). The genre of philosophical dialogue appears - Conversation of a disappointed person with his Soul, where the theme of doubts about the advantages of the afterlife is heard: a person, the Soul claims, should enjoy every moment of his earthly existence. This motive is expressed even more clearly in To the harpist's song, the most outstanding poetic work of that time. Among the best examples of religious poetry are hymns to the Nile god Happi and Osiris. The genre of magic spells is presented Texts of sarcophagi.

The literature of the New Kingdom continues the artistic traditions of the Middle Kingdom. Fairy tales appear in large numbers, especially during the 19th–20th dynasties ( A Tale of Two Brothers,The Tale of Truth and Falsehood, The Tale of the Doomed Prince, The tale of the Theban king Sekenenra and the Hyksos king Apepi), life instructions ( Amenemope's teaching, Anya's teaching), vocabulary in honor of the kings, the new capital, etc. Love lyrics and religious poetry reach a high level with its masterpiece - the hymn to Aten. Historiography (the annals of Thutmose III) and epic poetry ( Song of the Battle of Kadesh). All magical spells known from previous eras are collected in the famous Book of the Dead, a kind of guide to the afterlife.

Fantastic tales (a fairy tale cycle about the priest Khasmuas), instructions ( Teaching of Ankhsheshonq), an epic poem about Pharaoh Petubast; religious literature presented A book about sighs(list of conspiracies with the help of which Isis revived Osiris), A book about the passage of eternity, The book about the overthrow of Apophis And The plaintive songs of Isis and Nephthys(for mysteries). During this period, different types of historical prose developed: political chronicle ( Piankhi Stele, Chronicle of Osorkon, Demotic Chronicle), family chronicle ( The Tale of Peteis III), travel reports ( Unuamon's Journey to Byblos). The fable genre is born, where only animal characters act.

The science.

Astronomy.

The Egyptians have been making astronomical observations for a long time. They grouped the stars into twelve zodiacal constellations, giving them the names of those animals whose contours resembled their outlines (cat, jackal, snake, scarab, donkey, lion, goat, cow, falcon, baboon, ibis, crocodile); divided the entire celestial equator into thirty-six parts, compiled tables of the positions of the stars at each hour of the night for fifteen-day periods. The Egyptians were the first in history to create a solar calendar. The beginning of the year was considered the day of the first appearance of the star Sothis, or Sirius (the first day of the month Thoth), which, as the Egyptians believed, was the cause of the flood of the Nile. The Egyptians calculated the year in three hundred and sixty-five days and divided it into three seasons (flood, sowing, harvest) of four months each (that, faofi, atir, khoyak - tibi, mehir, famenot, farmuti - pakhon, payni, epifi, mesori ); the month consisted of three decades of ten days. A “small year” of five additional days was added to the last month. The day was divided into twenty-four hours, the duration of which was not constant - it depended on the time of year: short daytime and long night hours in winter and long daytime and short night hours in summer. The chronology was carried out according to the years of the reign of each pharaoh.

Mathematics.

The early birth of mathematics was associated with the need to carefully measure the level of rising water in the Nile and take into account available resources. Its development was largely determined by progress in monumental construction (pyramids, temples).

The counting system was basically decimal. The Egyptians knew fractions, but only those with a unit in the numerator. Division was replaced by sequential subtraction, and multiplication was only by 2. They knew how to raise to a power and extract the square root. In geometry, they were able to determine the area of ​​a circle relatively accurately (as a square 8/9 of its diameter), but they measured any quadrilaterals or trigons as rectangles.

Medicine.

The Egyptian art of healing enjoyed particular fame in the Eastern Mediterranean and had a great influence on Greek and Arab medicine. Egyptian doctors explained diseases by somatic causes and associated only epidemic diseases with the will of the gods. Symptoms, as a rule, were taken by them to be diseases themselves, and therapy was aimed at combating individual symptoms; Only in rare cases was the diagnosis established by a combination of symptoms. The main means of determining the disease were inspection, feeling and listening. Egyptian medicine featured a significant degree of specialization. She achieved particular success in gynecology and ophthalmology. Dentistry was also well developed, as evidenced by the good condition of the mummies’ teeth and the presence of gold plates on damaged teeth. The art of surgery was also at a high level, as shown by the discovered surgical instruments and the surviving treatise on surgery. Thanks to mummification, doctors had fairly deep anatomical knowledge. They developed the doctrine of blood circulation and the heart as its main center. Cosmetics and pharmacology were an integral part of medicine; medicines were produced mainly in special laboratories at churches; the bulk of them were emetics and laxatives. All these achievements, however, did not prevent doctors from resorting to magic and spells.

Geography and ethnography.

Existing in the enclosed space of the Nile Valley, the Egyptians were poorly aware of the outside world, although they were able to draw up excellent topographical plans of the area they knew. They had the most fantastic ideas about countries beyond the Orontes and the 4th cataract of the Nile. The universe seemed to them to be a flat earth with the sky resting on it on four supports (world mountains); The underworld was located underground, the world ocean stretched around it, and Egypt was in its center. The entire landmass was divided into two great river systems: the Mediterranean with the Nile and the Eritrean with the Euphrates, and the water element into three seas: the Green (modern Red), the Black (salty lakes of the Suez Isthmus) and the Circular (Mediterranean). The Nile flowed out of two huge holes at Elephantine. The Egyptians believed that humanity consisted of four races: red (Egyptians, or "people"), yellow (Asians), white (Libyans) and black (Negroes); they later included the Hittites and Mycenaean Greeks into this system.

Art.

Art in Ancient Egypt was closely connected with religious cult and therefore had a special sacred meaning. The work of an artist was considered a sacred act. All types of art were subject to strict canons that did not allow freedom of creativity. Any artistic form sought to express the harmonious unity of the cosmic and the earthly, the divine world and the human world.

Architecture.

Architecture was the leading sphere of Egyptian art. Time has not been kind to most of the monuments of Egyptian architecture; Mainly religious buildings - tombs and temples - have reached us.

The earliest form of tomb, the mastaba (stone bench), was a massive, rectangular structure with walls sloping toward the center; in the underground part (depth from fifteen to thirty meters) there was a burial chamber with a mummy, in the above-ground part there were several religious rooms, including (on the eastern side) a chapel, and visiting halls; there were also statues of the deceased; the walls were covered with reliefs and paintings that had informative (glorifying the deceased) or magical (ensuring his afterlife) meaning. During the 1st–2nd dynasties, mastabas served as the resting place of both pharaohs and nobility; during the 3rd–6th dynasties, only the nobility.

The mastaba became the structural basis for a new form of royal burial that appeared during the Third Dynasty - the pyramid. The pyramid expressed the new concept of the king as a god, towering above all other people. The task of creating a grandiose royal burial was solved by increasing it vertically. The pyramid was built from stone blocks tightly fitted to each other and was oriented to the cardinal points; the entrance to it is in the northern part; burial and unloading chambers were located inside (for uniform pressure distribution). The first type of pyramid was a step pyramid - the Pyramid of Djoser in Saqqara, 60 m high, built by the architect Imhotep. It consisted of six mastabas placed on top of each other, decreasing towards the top. During the IV Dynasty, builders began to fill the voids between the steps, resulting in the classic type of pyramid - the sloping pyramid. The first pyramid of this type was the pyramid of Sneferu in Dashur (over 100 m). Its successors are the tallest stone structures in the history of mankind - the pyramids of Khufu (146.5 m) and Khafre (143 m) in Giza. The royal pyramid was the center of an extensive funerary architectural ensemble, surrounded by a wall: it included a mortuary temple, small pyramids of queens, mastabas of courtiers and nomarchs. At V–VI, the size of the pyramids decreased significantly (no higher than 70 m).

In the initial period of the Middle Kingdom (XI Dynasty), a new form of royal burial arose - a rock tomb located under a covered columned hall, in front of which there was a mortuary temple (the tomb of Mentuhotep). However, the pharaohs of the 12th dynasties resumed the construction of the pyramids. They were of medium size (the pyramid of Senusret I reached 61 m) and were not very strong due to the new method of masonry: its basis was eight stone walls, radiating from the center to the corners and the middle of each side of the pyramid; eight more walls extended from these walls at an angle of 45 degrees; the space between the walls was filled with sand and rubble.

In the New Kingdom, the tradition of burying kings in secret rock tombs in the Valley of the Kings near Thebes again prevailed. For greater safety, they were carved, as a rule, in remote mountainous areas. Since the XVIII dynasty, the tomb began to be separated from the mortuary temple (the idea of ​​the architect Ineni).

The dominant form of temple architecture during the Old Kingdom was the mortuary temple, which was an integral part of the funerary complex. It adjoined the pyramid from the east and was a rectangle with a flat roof made of massive limestone blocks. In its center there was a hall with tetrahedral monolithic pillars and two narrow rooms for funeral royal statues; the hall opened into an open courtyard, behind which there were prayer houses (the temple at the pyramid of Khafre). During the V–VI dynasties, the importance of the temple in the funeral ensemble increased; its size increases; architectural decoration becomes more complex; palm-shaped columns and columns in the form of bundles of unblown papyri are used for the first time; the walls are covered with colored reliefs. Later, another type of column appears - in the form of a bunch of lotus buds. During the V Dynasty, a new form of temple appeared - the solar temple: its main element was a colossal stone obelisk, the top of which was covered with copper (the petrified ray of Ra); he stands on a hill; in front of them is a huge altar.

During the 11th Dynasty, the mortuary temple became the central element of the funerary ensemble; it consists of two terraces framed by porticoes and topped by a pyramid, the base of which is a natural rock (the tomb of Mentuhotep). During the XII Dynasty, despite the resumption of the construction of monumental pyramids, it nevertheless retains its importance within the framework (funerary complex of Amenemhat III). The temple finally turns into the center of the national cult of the pharaoh. It is distinguished by its impressive size, a large number of rooms, and an abundance of sculptures and reliefs. In temple construction, a colonnade with a new form of column (decorated with capitals with relief heads of the goddess Hathor) and a pylon (a gate in the form of two towers with a narrow passage) began to be widely used. A custom arose to install colossal statues or obelisks with copper-clad tops in front of the temple.

During the XVIII dynasty, the classic type of above-ground Egyptian temple was established (Karnak and Luxor temples in Thebes). In plan it is an elongated rectangle, oriented from east to west; its facade faces the Nile, from which a road framed by sphinxes leads to it (alley of sphinxes). The entrance to the temple is made in the form of a pylon, in front of which there are two obelisks and colossal statues of the pharaoh. Behind the pylon there is an open courtyard, surrounded around the perimeter by a colonnade (peristyle), which abuts another smaller pylon leading to a second courtyard, completely filled with columns and statues of the pharaoh (hypostyle). The hypostyle is directly adjacent to the main building of the temple, consisting of one or several columned halls, a sanctuary with statues of gods and utility rooms (treasury, library, storerooms). The repeated transition from one architectural space to another (the Karnak ensemble is more than 1 km long) carries the idea of ​​a believer’s unhurried gradual approach to the deity. Since the Egyptian temple was not a complete whole and existed as a collection of individual parts, it could be “continued” and supplemented with new structures without disturbing the harmony. In contrast to the varied interior decoration, in its external expression it exhibited a simplicity of line consistent with the monotonous landscape; it was broken only by wall paintings and light colors.

Over time, the mortuary royal temples turn into independent monumental structures with massive pylons and avenues of sphinxes (the temple of Amenhotep III with two huge statues of the pharaoh - the so-called colossi of Memnon). Standing apart is the mortuary temple of Queen Hatshepsut in Deir el-Bahri (architect Senmut), which continues the architectural traditions of the 11th dynasty. It consists of three terraces with rooms carved into the rocks, the facades of which are framed by colonnades; The terraces are connected by ramps.

Significant changes in temple construction occurred during the reign of Akhenaten. Architects abandon monumentality and columned halls; colonnades are used only to create pavilions in front of the pylons. However, the XIX Dynasty returns to pre-Akhenaton architectural traditions; the desire for grandeur reaches its climax - giant pylons, columns and statues of kings, excessive interior decoration (temple of Amun in Karnak, temples of Ramesses II in Tanis). The type of rock temple is spreading; the most famous is the mortuary temple of Ramesses II in Abu Simbel (Ramesseum), carved into the rock 55 m deep: the facade of the temple is designed as the front wall of a huge pylon with a height of approx. 30 m and width approx. 40 m; in front of it there are four seated gigantic statues of the pharaoh over 20 m in height; The organization of the internal space reproduces the order of the premises of a classical above-ground temple.

The last monuments of monumental temple construction in the era of the New Kingdom are the temple of the god Khonsu in Karnak, erected under Ramesses III, and the grandiose mortuary temple of this pharaoh in Medinet Habu, combined with the royal palace into a single complex. In the subsequent period, such construction is abandoned. Its final surge occurs only in the Sais era (the temple of the goddess Neith in Sais with palm-shaped colonnades and colossal statues of the pharaohs).

Very little is known about the secular architecture of Ancient Egypt. The palace architecture can only be judged from Akhenaten's royal residence in Akhetaten; the palaces of previous periods have not survived. Akhenaten's palace was oriented from north to south and consisted of two parts connected by a covered passage - official (for receptions and ceremonies) and private (living quarters). The main entrance was on the north side and led into a large courtyard, along the perimeter of which there were statues and which abutted the façade of the palace; in the center of the facade there was a pavilion with columns, and on the sides there were ramps. The front columned hall of the palace was adjacent to recreation rooms, courtyards and gardens with ponds.

The house of a noble Egyptian, as a rule, was located in the middle of a plot surrounded by walls with two entrances - the main one and the service one. In the era of the Middle Kingdom, it was distinguished by its significant size (60 x 40 m) and could number up to seventy rooms, grouped around a central hall with four columns (the settlement in Kahuna). During the New Kingdom period, judging by the excavations in Akhetaton, the house of a noble person was of a more modest size (22 x 22 m). It was divided into the right front (hall and reception rooms) and the left residential part (bedroom with washroom, rooms for women, storage rooms). All rooms had windows right up to the ceiling, so the main hall was built higher than the rest of the rooms. The walls and floors were covered with paintings. Around the house there were courtyards, a well, outbuildings, a garden with a pond and gazebos. The house of a commoner of the Middle and New Kingdom era was a small structure that included a common room, a bedroom and a kitchen; a small courtyard adjoined it. The building materials were reed, wood, clay or mud brick.

Sculpture.

The plastic art of Ancient Egypt was inseparable from architecture; sculpture was an organic part of tombs, temples and palaces. The works of Egyptian sculptors show a high degree of technical skill; their work required great effort - they carved, carefully trimmed and polished statues from the hardest types of stone (granite, porphyry, etc.). At the same time, they fairly reliably conveyed the shapes of the human body; They were less successful in drawing muscles and tendons. The main object of the sculptors’ creativity was an earthly ruler or nobleman, or less often a commoner. The image of the deity was not central; usually the gods were depicted rather schematically, often with the heads of birds or animals.

Already during the period of the Old Kingdom, canonical types of statues of high-ranking officials developed: 1) standing (the figure is tensely straightened, frontal, the head is raised high, the left leg takes a step forward, the arms are lowered and pressed to the body); 2) seated on a throne (hands symmetrically placed on knees or one arm bent at the elbow) or sitting on the ground with legs crossed. All of them give the impression of solemn monumentality and strict calm; they are characterized by a stiff posture, an impassive facial expression, strong and strong muscles (statue of the nobleman Ranofer); Before us is a certain generalized social type, embodying power and might. To a particular extent, these features are inherent in the huge statues of pharaohs with an exaggeratedly powerful torso and majestic impassivity of poses (statues of Djoser, Khafre); in its maximum expression, the idea of ​​​​divine royal power is represented in the giant stone sphinxes - lions with the head of a pharaoh (the first royal statues outside the temples). At the same time, the connection of the sculptural image with the funeral cult required its resemblance to the original, which led to the early appearance of a sculptural portrait that conveys the individual originality of the model and her character (statues of the architect Hemiun, the scribe Kaya, Prince Kaaper, the bust of Prince Anhaaf). Thus, in Egyptian sculpture, the cold arrogance of appearance and solemn pose were combined with a realistic rendering of the face and body; it carried within itself the idea of ​​a person’s social purpose and at the same time the idea of ​​his individual existence. Sculpture of small forms turned out to be less canonical, since its objects could be representatives of the lower strata (figurines of servants and slaves in the process of work).

In the era of the Middle Kingdom, the Theban school occupied a leading position in the plastic arts. If at first it follows the principles of schematization and idealization (the statue of Senusret I from Lisht), then the realistic direction intensifies in it: the royal statue, glorifying the power of the pharaoh, must at the same time consolidate his specific appearance in the minds of the people. For this purpose, sculptors use new techniques - the contrast between the stillness of the pose and the lively expressiveness of a carefully crafted face (deeply seated eyes, traced facial muscles and folds of skin) and a sharp play of chiaroscuro (statues of Senusret III and Amenemhet III). Genre scenes are popular in wooden folk sculpture: a plowman with bulls, a boat with oarsmen, a detachment of warriors; They are distinguished by spontaneity and truthfulness.

In the early period of the New Kingdom, there was a departure from the plastic innovations of the previous era: with maximum idealization, only the most general portrait resemblance was preserved (statues of Queen Hatshepsut and Thutmose III; a custom arose to reproduce the features of the ruling pharaoh in sculptural images of the nobility. But, starting from the reign of Thutmose IV, sculptors abandon the canonical rigor of forms in favor of exquisite decorativeness: the previously smooth surface of the statue is now covered with thin flowing lines of clothing and curls of wigs and enlivened by the play of chiaroscuro. The desire to convey movement and volume intensifies; bodies acquire softness, the drawing of the face becomes more precise. The tendency towards naturalness and Realism is characteristic mainly of statues of private individuals (a statue of a married couple from the time of Amenhotep III, a male head from the Birmingham Museum).This trend reaches its culmination under Akhenaten, when a complete break with the canon occurs; idealization is abandoned even when depicting the king and queen. The sculptors set themselves the task of conveying the inner world of the character (portrait heads of Akhenaten and Nefertiti), as well as achieving a realistic image of the human body (statues of four goddesses from the tomb of Tutankhamun).

During the period of the anti-Akhenaton reaction, an attempt was made to return to the old anti-realist methods. The leading trend again becomes idealization, characteristic primarily of the Memphis school (statues from Per-Ramesses). However, in the plastic art of the era of the 19th–20th dynasties, the realistic direction does not give up its position, which is manifested primarily in the royal portrait: there are no more exaggerated muscles, an unnaturally straight pose, a frozen gaze directed into the distance; The pharaoh appears in the image of a strong but ordinary warrior, not in ceremonial, but in everyday attire. The secular image of the king is established - not a god, but a real earthly ruler (statue of Ramesses II).

In the initial period of the Late Kingdom, plastic art experienced a decline. In the XI–IX centuries. BC. monumental sculpture gives way to small forms (small bronze figurines). At the end of the 9th - beginning of the 8th centuries. BC. realistic sculptural portraits are being revived (statues of Taharqa, Kushite princesses, a statue of the Theban mayor Montuemkhet). In the Sais and Persian eras, the realistic trend competes with the revived traditionalist tendency.

Relief art and painting.

Relief was an important component of ancient Egyptian art. By the time of the Old Kingdom, two main types of Egyptian relief had developed - ordinary bas-relief and in-depth (embedded) relief (the surface of the stone, which served as the background, remained untouched, and the contours of the image were incised). At the same time, a strict system of arranging scenes and entire compositions on the walls of tombs was established. The reliefs of the royal tombs served three purposes: to glorify the pharaoh as an earthly ruler (scenes of war and hunting), to emphasize his divine status (the pharaoh surrounded by gods) and to ensure a blissful existence in the afterlife (a variety of food, dishes, clothing, weapons, etc.) . Reliefs in the tombs of the nobility were divided into two categories: some sang the merits and exploits of the deceased in the service of the pharaoh, others depicted everything necessary for another life.

Even in the era of the Early Kingdom, the basic principles of relief images were formed (Narmer slab): 1) waist-length arrangement of scenes (one above the other); 2) general planar character; 3) conventionality and sketchiness, partly due to the belief in the magical nature of the image: the transfer of social status through the size of the figure (the figure of the pharaoh is superior to all others, the figures of nobles are slightly smaller, ordinary people are almost pygmies), a combination of different perspectives (the head and legs of a person are shown in profile , and the eyes, shoulders and arms are turned to the front), showing an object using schematic fixation of its individual parts (a hoof instead of a horse, a ram’s head instead of the ram itself), assigning certain poses to certain categories of people (enemies are invariably depicted defeated, etc. ); 4) maximum portrait resemblance of the main character; 5) contrasting the main character with the rest of the participants in the scene, with whom he contrasts with his calmness and immobility; however, he always remains out of action. The reliefs were painted without gradations of shades, the figures were outlined.

These pictorial principles were also used in wall painting, which in the era of the Old Kingdom turned out to be closely related to relief art. It was during that period that two main types of wall painting techniques spread: using tempera on a dry surface and inserting colored pastes into pre-made recesses. Exclusively mineral paints were used.

During the period of the Middle Kingdom, two directions were defined - the capital, which focuses on the strict reproduction of previous models (tombs of the pharaohs and courtiers), and the provincial, which tries to overcome a number of canons and is looking for new artistic techniques (tombs of the nomarchs in Beni Hassan); the latter is characterized by more natural poses of the characters, a rejection of disproportion in the depiction of the main and secondary participants in the scenes, greater realism in the display of commoners and animals, richness of color, bold comparison of light spots. However, with the decline in the independence of the nomes during the XII dynasty, this trend gradually fades away.

In the era of the New Kingdom, relief and wall paintings separated from each other, becoming independent types of fine art. The importance of wall painting is increasing. The paintings are done on smooth white plaster covering the limestone walls, and are distinguished by stylistic and subject diversity (Theban wall painting); reliefs are carved much less frequently and only in those rock tombs that are carved from high-quality limestone. Book painting appears, close to graphics (illustrations for Book of the Dead).

During the XVIII dynasty, the art of relief and painting underwent changes both in plot and in visual terms (Theban school). New themes appear (various military scenes, scenes of feasts); attempts are made to convey the movement and volume of the figures, to show them from the back, in full frontal view or full profile; group compositions acquire three-dimensionality; coloring becomes more natural. The culmination of this evolution is the era of Akhenaten and Tutankhamun, when the rejection of previous canons allows artists to interpret hitherto forbidden themes (the king in everyday life - at dinner, with his family), pay more attention to the surrounding environment (gardens, palaces, temples), transfer figures to free and dynamic poses without a conditional frontal turn of the shoulders.

Under the last pharaohs of the 18th and 19th dynasties, plot and compositional diversity, interest in landscape, and the desire for portrait accuracy and careful modeling of the body were preserved. At the same time, there is a return to the traditional principles of composition, idealization of images, disproportion of figured images, especially in temple reliefs of cult content. After Ramses III, this tendency achieves complete victory; in Theban art the realistic direction is dying; religious themes suppress secular ones.

Clothing and food.

Since ancient times, the main clothing of men was an apron, loincloth or short skirt. The fabric and size varied depending on social status: for commoners and slaves it was a simple piece of leather or paper material that fitted the hips, for nobles it was an oblong piece of fabric, tightly wrapped around the lower back and upper part of the leg and secured with a belt. Gradually, the apron and skirt lengthened, and it became fashionable to wear another longer and wider apron or skirt, sometimes made of transparent fabric. Noble men also covered the upper part of their body. At first, a narrow cloak was used for this, which was thrown over the shoulders, or a trimmed tiger (leopard) skin that protected the back; it was passed under the arms and tied on the shoulders with belts. During the era of the New Kingdom, dresses made of expensive fabric such as a shirt or cape became widespread.

Unlike men, women were required to cover their bodies. Their oldest clothing was a woven dress that fitted the body from the chest to the feet and was held on by straps, sometimes with short and narrow sleeves; Over time, it began to be decorated with multi-colored patterns. Later, noble women began to throw thin transparent bedspreads over them. The costume of a noble Egyptian woman in the era of the 18th–20th dynasties consisted of a wide shirt, a short skirt and a large cloak with rounded edges.

The custom of covering one's head and wearing shoes only spread to Egypt during the New Kingdom. Both men and women wore shoes and sandals made of leather or narrow strips of papyrus; sandals were attached to the foot with straps. Shoes were worn only when leaving the house. The traditional men's headdress was a round, tight-fitting cap made of leather or paper fabric, sometimes made of leaves and stems. Pharaohs and dignitaries preferred a kind of cap with long “ears” and a “braid” twisted into a bun at the back. Women threw a large scarf over their heads, gathered into folds and covering their hair like a cover.

In the early period, men wore short and women long and voluminous hair. Later, it became a custom for men to shave their hair and beard, and this fashion spread among noble women. At the same time, aristocrats began to use false beards and wigs, usually curled.

The main food was barley cakes, emmer porridge, fish (primarily dried) and vegetables, the main drink was barley beer. The diet of the noble also included meat, fruits and grape wine. There were no forks. During the meal, knives were not used: food was served on trays, already cut into pieces, which were taken with the fingers of the right hand. Liquid food was eaten with spoons; They drank from glasses and goblets. The main part of the kitchen utensils consisted of various vessels, ladles and jugs. Tables were originally a round or rectangular board on a low stand; real dining tables and chairs came later.

Foreign Egyptology.

Until the end of the 18th century. There was practically no interest in the history of Ancient Egypt. The country was under Turkish domination and remained inaccessible to Europeans; in addition, knowledge of ancient Egyptian writing was lost. The situation changed thanks to Napoleon I's campaign in Egypt in 1798–1801, in which a group of French scientists participated to collect and catalog Egyptian antiquities. The result of their work was a multi-volume Description of Egypt(1809–1828). The Rosetta Stone they brought to Europe with text written in hieroglyphic, demotic and Greek script allowed J.-F. Champollion (1790–1832) to find a method for deciphering hieroglyphic writing in 1822; he compiled the first grammar and the first dictionary of the ancient Egyptian language. The discovery of J.-F. Champollion marked the birth of Egyptology.

At the first stage of the development of Egyptology (until the early 1880s), excavations were largely unorganized; Due to the lack of qualifications of many archaeological adventurers, irreparable damage was caused to a number of valuable monuments. At the same time, systematic archaeological research began, primarily by scientists in Germany and France. An important role in this was played by the Frenchman O.F. Mariette (1821–1881), who carried out excavations in Thebes, Abydos and Memphis; in 1858 he founded the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. The decipherment of hieroglyphic writing was also completed (R. Lepsius and G. Brugsch), and a huge amount of work was carried out to collect, systematize and publish the discovered inscriptions and material materials. The German school founded by R. Lepsius began to study ancient Egyptian history and chronology.

At the second stage (early 1880s - 1920s), archaeological research was carried out on a strict scientific basis and under the control of the state Egyptian Antiquities Service in Cairo. The English scientist W. M. Flinders Petrie (1853–1942) developed a method for determining the relative age of objects and fruitfully used it during excavations in Negada, Abydos, Memphis and El Amarna. The work of the French expeditions was coordinated by the Institute of Oriental Archeology, founded in 1881. Since the beginning of the twentieth century. European archaeologists were joined by their colleagues from the United States, whose activities were supervised by the Metropolitan Museum of Art in New York, the Boston Museum of Fine Arts, the University of Chicago and the University of California.

During this period, great successes were achieved in the field of scientific publication of monuments of ancient Egyptian writing and archaeological materials ( General Catalog of Egyptian Antiquities of the Cairo Museum, Monuments of Ancient Egypt, Primary sources of Egyptian antiquities). The development of a wide variety of aspects of ancient Egyptian history began. Particular interest was shown in the military-political past of Egypt, its religion and culture. The first generalizing works appeared - History of Egypt since ancient times W. M. Flinders Petrie, History of Egypt American D. J. Brasted (1865–1935), During the time of the pharaohs And Kings and gods of Egypt A. Moret (1868–1938). The concept of the leading role of Egyptian civilization in the ancient world was established; its main adherents were the Frenchman G. Maspero (1846–1916), author Ancient history of the peoples of the classical East(1895–1899), and the German E. Meyer (1855–1930), author Ancient stories(1884–1910).

In the third stage (1920s–1950s), archaeologists turned to serious study of the Predynastic and Early Dynastic periods. The most sensational event was the discovery in 1922 of the tomb of Tutankhamun by the Englishman H. Carter (1873–1939). The problem of the origin of Egyptian civilization and its relationship with neighboring cultures (Nubian, Libyan, Syrian and Palestinian) was posed. Philologists have made significant progress: German scientists A. Erman and H. Grapov compiled a new dictionary of the ancient Egyptian language, and the English Egyptologist A.H. Gardiner published a grammar of the classical Egyptian language. Active publication of texts continued: Wilbur Papyri, Administrative documents from the Ramessid era, Egyptian onomastics etc. Most scientists abandoned the idea of ​​Egyptian dominance in the Ancient East ( Cambridge Ancient History). In the 1940s, the Egyptian school of Egyptologists arose (A. Kamal, S. Hassan, Z. Ghoneim, A. Bakir).

Since the 1960s (the fourth stage) and especially in recent decades, the problems and methodological tools of Egyptology have expanded significantly. While maintaining traditional interest in political history, culture and religion, they often began to be viewed from a new angle. The problem of the relationship between political ideology and political practice was posed (E. Hornung), the Egyptian concept of monarchy was rethought (E. Spalinger). A semiotic approach began to be used in the study of various aspects of the ancient Egyptian mentality: ideas about time (E. Otto), war and peace (I. Hafeman and I. Foos), the image of the alien (G. Kees). Considerable attention began to be paid to the study of historical consciousness (E. Otto, M. Werner, I. von Beckerath). Interest has increased in economic and social structures (V. Helk, B. Kemp), in the connections of Egypt with early Greek civilization (V. Helk), with African cultures (J. Leclant) and Judea (A. Malamat), in the previously little-studied period of the 11th century –VIII centuries BC. (K. Kitchen).

Domestic Egyptology.

In the 19th century in Russia, interest in Ancient Egypt was limited to collecting collections and describing rarities; museums became the focus of this interest. The situation changed at the beginning of the 20th century. thanks to the activities of V.S. Golenishchev (1856–1947) and, especially, B.A. Turaev (1868–1920), the father of Russian Egyptology. V.S. Golenishchev organized excavations in Egypt at his own expense and created an impressive collection of more than six thousand objects; he carried out annotated translations of many Egyptian literary texts ( The Tale of the Castaway, Unuamon's Journey and etc.); in 1915 he moved to Egypt and founded the Department of Egyptology at Cairo University. B.A. Turaev did a great job of systematizing Egyptian monuments in Russian museums and organized the Department of Ancient Egypt at the Museum of Fine Arts. The main area of ​​his scientific interests was Egyptian literature and religion ( God Thoth 1898 and Egyptian literature 1920). Sharing the position of G. Maspero and E. Meyer, he highly appreciated the achievements of Egyptian civilization ( History of the Ancient East 1912–1913).

B.A. Turaev’s student V.V. Struve (1889–1965), the founder of Soviet Egyptology, first proposed a Marxist interpretation of ancient Egyptian society as a special type of slave-owning (early slave-owning) society. His followers V.I. Avdiev, M.A. Korostovtsev and Yu.Ya. Perepelkin placed socio-economic relations, primarily the community and slavery, at the center of their research; they also carried out a comparative analysis of Egyptian and other ancient Eastern social systems; in the 1960–1980s, this direction was continued by O.D. Berlev, E.S. Bogoslovsky and I.A. Stuchevsky. At the same time, certain attention was paid to issues of cultural and political history - religion (M.A. Korostovtsev, O.I. Pavlova), mythology (I.E. Mathieu), language (N.S. Petrovsky), law (I. M. Lurie), reforms of Akhenaten (Yu.Ya. Perepelkin), history of wars (V.I. Avdiev). Since the late 1980s, the range of domestic research has expanded significantly: along with traditional socio-economic issues (T.N. Savelyeva), scientists are trying to reconstruct the mental structures of the ancient Egyptians (A.O. Bolshakov) and more deeply study the connections of the ancient Egyptian civilization with neighboring ones ( G.A. Belova).

Ivan Krivushin

Literature:

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Champollion J.-F. About the Egyptian hieroglyphic alphabet. M., 1950
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Korostovtsev M.A. Journey of Unu-Amun to Byblos. M., 1960
Mathieu M.E. Art of Ancient Egypt. M., 1961
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King H.A. Egypt before the pharaohs. M., 1964
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History of the Ancient East. Ed. IN AND. Kuzishchina. M., 2002

Egypt was called "Gift of the Nile" in ancient times

Geographical position

Ancient Egypt is one of the world's oldest civilizations, which originated in Northeast Africa, in the Nile Valley. It is generally accepted that the word "Egypt" comes from the ancient Greek "Aigyptos". It probably arose from Het-ka-Ptah, a city that the Greeks later called. The Egyptians themselves called their country “Ta Kemet” - the Black Land - after the color of the local soil.

Egypt occupied an advantageous geographical position. The Mediterranean Sea connected it with the Western Asian coast, Cyprus, the islands of the Aegean Sea and mainland Greece. The Nile was the most important shipping artery connecting Upper and Lower Egypt and the entire country with Nubia, which ancient authors called Ethiopia.

Formation of a single state

We read in more detail about the first centuries of Ancient Egypt and the formation of the state in the article -.

In the era preceding the formation of the state, Egypt consisted of separate regions; as a result of their unification, two kingdoms arose - and. After a long war, the Upper Egyptian kingdom won, and the two parts merged. The exact date of this event is unknown, but it can be assumed that around 3000 BC. e. a single state already existed in the Nile Valley.

The kings waged constant wars. It is known, for example, that during the campaign to Nubia of the founder of the IV dynasty (XXVIII century BC), 7 thousand prisoners and 200 thousand heads of livestock were taken away, and during the campaign against the Libyans - 1,100 people. During the reign of the IV dynasty, Egypt became the sole owner of the copper mine region on the Sinai Peninsula. Trade expeditions were sent to Nubia for building stone, ivory, acacia and ebony (it was delivered to Nubia from the interior of Africa), for precious stones, incense, panther skins and exotic animals. They brought fragrant resins and “light gold” from them. Timber - cedar wood - came from Phoenician to Egypt.

Enormous power was concentrated in the hands of the king, the basis of which was an extensive land fund. large labor and food resources. The state acquired the features of relying on an extensive bureaucratic apparatus. The first person on the hierarchical ladder after the pharaoh was the supreme dignitary, who was also the chief judge, who combined a number of government positions and managed many sectors of the economy. In the presence of private farms, the decisive role in the country's economy, especially during the V-VI dynasties, was played by farms, where, apparently, the overwhelming majority of the working population was employed.

During the era of the Old Kingdom, gardening, horticulture, and viticulture received further development, especially in Lower Egypt. The Egyptians are credited with discovering beekeeping. The Delta's pastures provided ample opportunities for the development of livestock farming. Its characteristic feature is the keeping of fully or semi-domesticated desert animals in the herd together with livestock: antelopes, ibex and gazelles. The main wealth of Upper Egypt was grain, primarily barley and emmer wheat. Part of it was transported north along the Nile. Thus, Southern and Northern Egypt complemented each other.

The period of the Old Kingdom was characterized by rapid growth in stone construction, the culmination of which was the construction of royal tombs - huge pyramids with memorial temples and “cities” of noble tombs. With the construction of the King's Pyramid (III Dynasty), carried out mainly with the help of copper tools, Egypt finally entered the Copper Age. But stone tools continued to be used subsequently.

At the end of the V Dynasty, the power of the pharaohs began to weaken. At the same time, positions were strengthened. Exhausted by the construction of the pyramids, torn apart by social contradictions, by the end of the reign of the VI dynasty, Egypt began to disintegrate into semi-independent countries. The 70 kings of Memphis of the next, VII dynasty, according to legend preserved by, ruled for only 70 days. From the middle of the 23rd century. BC. The period of Egypt's decline and its internal fragmentation began.

By the end of the 3rd millennium BC. the economic situation of Egypt required the unification of the country; During the troubles, the irrigation network fell into disrepair, and the population often suffered from severe hunger. At this time, two unifying centers laid claim to the Egyptian throne. One of them was located in the north of the country, in a fertile lowland near, on the west bank of the Nile. The Nomarch of Heracleopolis (Akhtoi) subjugated the rulers of nearby regions to his power, while simultaneously fighting the Asian nomads. Nomarchs also sought to become rulers of all of Egypt. The Theban rulers emerged victorious, and the country was united. On one of the reliefs that have survived to this day, this ruler is depicted as the conqueror of the Egyptians, Nubians, Asians and Libyans. But the achieved unity was not yet durable.

Middle Kingdom

After the reign of his heir, the throne was seized by Hatshepsut, who initially retained the child king, her stepson, Thutmose III, as the nominal ruler, but later openly declared herself a pharaoh. Having come to power, Thutmose III sought to eradicate any reminder of Hatshepsut, destroying her images and even her name. He made many campaigns in Syria and Palestine, and his empire began to extend from the fourth cataract of the Nile to the northern outskirts of Syria.

For the first half of the 14th century. BC e. comes the reign of (Akhenaton), whose name is associated with the most important religious reform. Under Amenhotep IV's two successors, a departure from his policies began. Semnekh-kere restored the cult of Amun; under the next pharaoh, Tutankhamun, the cult of Aten, approved by the reformer king, lost state support.

Under Ramses I (XIX Dynasty), long wars began with the Hittites for dominance in Syria. During the reign of Ramses II, it took place under the walls of the Syrian city of Kadesh, in which up to 20 thousand people participated on each side. In his description of this battle, Ramesses claims that it was he who won the victory. But it is known that the Egyptians were unable to take Kadesh and the Hittites, led by the king, pursued them during their retreat. The long war ended in the 21st year of the reign of Ramesses II with a peace treaty with the Hittite king Hattusilis III. The original treaty was written on silver tablets, but only copies in Egyptian and Hittite languages ​​survive. Despite the strength of Egyptian weapons, Ramesses II failed to restore the borders of the empire of the pharaohs of the 18th dynasty.

Under the heir of Ramesses II, his thirteenth son, and under Ramesses III, the son of the founder of the 20th dynasty Setnakht, waves of conquerors - the “peoples of the sea” and Libyan tribes - fell on Egypt. Having with difficulty repelled the onslaught of the enemy, the country found itself on the verge of serious upheavals, which in internal political life were manifested in frequent changes of rulers, rebellions and conspiracies, in the strengthening of the positions of the new nobility (especially in Thebaid, in the south of Egypt), closely associated with priestly circles, and in in the sphere of foreign policy - in the gradual decline in Egypt's military prestige and in the loss of its foreign possessions.

The era of the New Kingdom was for Egypt a time not only of territorial expansion, but also of rapid economic development, stimulated by the influx into the country of a huge amount of raw materials, livestock, gold, all kinds of tribute and labor in the form of captives.

From the 18th dynasty, bronze tools began to be widely used. But due to the high cost of copper, stone tools are still used. A number of iron products have survived from this era. Iron was known in Egypt before. But even at the end of the 18th dynasty it continued to be considered almost a treasure. And only in the VII-VI centuries. BC. tools in Egypt began to be widely made from iron, which was extremely important for economic progress.

During the era of the New Kingdom, improved plows, foot bellows in metallurgy, and a vertical loom began to be widely used. Horse breeding, previously unknown to the Egyptians, is developing, serving the Egyptian army with its military. From the reign of Amenhotep IV, the first image of a water-lifting structure - the shaduf - has reached us. His invention was of great importance for the development of horticulture and gardening in high fields. Attempts are being made to grow new varieties of trees exported from Asia (pomegranate, olive, peach, apple, almond, cherry, etc.) or from Punt (myrrh tree). Glass production is developing intensively. Art achieves unsurpassed perfection. Domestic trade is becoming increasingly important. International trade, for the development of which in Egypt during the era of conquest there was no incentive, because it received everything it needed for itself in the form of booty and tribute, acquires a certain significance only in the second half of the New Kingdom.

During the New Kingdom, the widespread use of slave labor was noted, primarily in the royal and temple households (although slaves also served private estates). Thus, during his 30-year reign, Ramses III donated to the temples over 100 thousand captives from Syria, Palestine and more than 1 million sections (Greek “arur”; 1 arur - 0.28 hectares) of arable land. But the main producer of material goods was still the working population of Egypt, entangled in all kinds of duties.

By the beginning of the 11th century. BC. Two kingdoms were formed in Egypt: Lower Egyptian with its center in Tanis, in the northeast of the Delta, and Upper Egyptian with its capital in Thebes. By this time, Syria, Phenicia and Palestine had already left Egyptian influence, and the northern half of Egypt was flooded with Libyan military settlers led by leaders allied with the local Egyptian authorities. One of the Libyan military leaders, Shoshenq I (950-920 BC), founded the XXII Dynasty. But his power, like that of his successors, was not strong, and under the Libyan pharaohs (IX-VIII centuries BC) Lower Egypt fell into a number of separate regions.

At the end of the 8th century. BC. The Nubian king Piankhi captured a significant part of Upper Egypt, including Thebes. The local influential priesthood supported the conquerors, hoping with their help to regain their dominant position. But the ruler of Sais in Lower Egypt, Tefnakht, who relied on the Libyans, managed to lead the fight against the invasion. Memphis also opposed the Nubians.

However, in three battles they defeated Tefnakht’s army and, moving north, reached Memphis, taking the city by storm. Tefnakht was forced to surrender to the mercy of the victors. The next Nubian king to rule Egypt was Shabaka. According to the legend preserved by Manetho, he captured the Lower Egyptian pharaoh Bokhoris and burned him alive. In 671 BC. The Assyrian king Esarhaddon defeated the army of the Nubian pharaoh Taharqa and captured Memphis.

The liberation of Egypt and its unification was carried out by the founder of the XXVI (Sais) dynasty, Psammetichus I. The next pharaoh, Necho II, sought to establish his dominance in Syria. In 608 BC. The Jewish king Josiah blocked the Egyptian army's road at Megiddo (a city in northern Palestine), but was mortally wounded. After this, Judea began to pay a large tribute in gold and silver to the Egyptian king. Egyptian rule over Syria and Palestine lasted three years, and in 605 BC. The Egyptian army was pushed back to its border by the Babylonians. Under Apria (589-570 BC), one of the successors of Psammetichus I, Egypt supported Judea in the fight against Babylonia. Apries defeated the fleet of Sidon, one of the largest Phoenician cities. In 586 BC. The Egyptian army appeared under the walls of Jerusalem, but was soon defeated by the Babylonians.

By that time, to the west of Egypt, on the Libyan shore of the Mediterranean Sea, the Hellenes had created their own state - Cyrene. Apries decided to subjugate him and sent significant military forces against him, but they were defeated by the Greeks. A rebellion broke out in the Egyptian army against Aprus, and Amasis (570-526 BC) was elevated to the throne.

Persian rule

In 525 BC. In the battle of Pelusium, the Persian army led by King Cambyses defeated the Egyptians. Then Cambyses was proclaimed king of Egypt (XXVII dynasty). To give the seizure of Egypt a legal character, legends were created about the matrimonial ties of the Persian kings with the Egyptian princesses and about the birth of Cambyses from the marriage of his father Cyrus with Nitetis, the daughter of Pharaoh Apria.

Capture of Egypt by Alexander the Great

Egypt achieved independence from the Persian overlords several times (Dynasties XXVIII-XXX) until it was conquered in 332 BC. Alexander the Great, in whom the Egyptians initially saw a liberator from Persian oppression. The time of Pharaonic Egypt is up. An era has begun.

Ancient Egypt

Culture

Countries of the Ancient East

Science knows little about the origins of the ancient Egyptians. Some scientists - Egyptologists - consider them to come from Asia. This, in their opinion, is evidenced by the language belonging to the Semitic-Hamitic group, as well as character traits typical of Asians or Europeans, but not of the Negroid race:

perseverance, desire for originality and initiative. Others believe that the original inhabitants of Egypt are relatives of the black peoples. This is indicated by the widespread among the Egyptians cult of the dead, fetishism And animal worship. One way or another, but by the 4th millennium BC. e. In the Nile Valley, a stable Egyptian nation was formed and the first state formations arose.

Egypt became the first state on Earth, the first great powerful power, the first empire claiming world domination. It was a strong state in which the people were completely subordinate to the ruling class. The basic principles on which the supreme power in Egypt rested were inviolability and incomprehensibility.

In time immemorial, a civilization arose on the territory of modern Egypt in the Nile Valley, leaving behind many secrets and mysteries. Even now it attracts the attention of researchers and ordinary people with its color, its unusualness and rich heritage.

Thirty Dynasties of Egyptian Rulers

It is not known exactly when the hunting tribes entered the Nile Valley and discovered there was a lot of food and a wide river as a reliable source of water. Years passed. Rural communities organized here increased in size and became richer. Then they divided into two kingdoms - the Lower (in the south) and the Upper (in the north). And in 3200 BC. e. ruler Menes was able to conquer Lower Egypt and organized the first dynasty of pharaohs, under whose control was both the delta and the valley of the great Nile.

Map of a unified Ancient Egypt

During the dynastic period, Ancient Egypt often became the dominant state in the region. This state had a complex social structure, advanced technologies for those times, a powerful army and developed internal trade. In addition, the Egyptians managed to achieve fantastic success in the field of construction - they were able to build effective irrigation systems on the banks of the Nile, huge temples and pyramids that capture the imagination of even modern people. In addition, the Egyptians invented the hieroglyphic writing system, organized an effective judicial system, and did many other important and amazing things.

In total, starting from 3200 BC. e., until the conquest of the Egyptians by the Persians in 342 BC. e. there were thirty dynasties of rulers of Egypt. These are truly Egyptian dynasties - that is, their representatives were Egyptians themselves, and not conquerors from distant lands. The last pharaoh of the Thirtieth Dynasty was Nectanebo II. When the Persians invaded his state, he collected his treasures and fled south.

However, the history of Ancient Egypt, as many believe, does not end there yet. Then Alexander the Great was able to recapture Egypt from the Persians, and subsequently Ptolemy, Alexander's military commander, began to rule this region. Ptolemy I proclaimed himself king of Egypt in 305 BC. e. He used local traditions preserved from the ancient pharaohs to gain a foothold on the throne. This (and the fact that he died of natural causes and not as a result of a conspiracy) shows that Ptolemy was a fairly intelligent ruler. As a result, he managed to create his own special dynasty, which ruled here for more than 250 years. By the way, the last representative of the Ptolemaic dynasty and the last queen of Egypt was the legendary Cleopatra VII Philopator.

Some legendary pharaohs

Pharaohs stood at the top of the social ladder and were considered equal to gods. The pharaohs were given great honors; they were considered so powerful that people were literally afraid to touch them.

The pharaohs traditionally wore an ankh around their necks, a magical symbol and talisman to which the Egyptians attached great importance. There have been many pharaohs over the centuries and millennia of Egypt's existence, but several of them are worth special mention.

Almost the most famous Egyptian pharaoh - Ramses II. He ascended the throne when he was about twenty years old and ruled the country for almost seven decades (from 1279 to 1213 BC). During this time, several generations have changed. And many of the Egyptians who lived at the end of the reign of Ramses II believed that he was a real immortal deity.

Another pharaoh worthy of mention - Djoser. He reigned in the 27th or 28th century BC. e. It is known that during his reign the city of Memphis finally became the capital of the state. However, Djoser went down in history primarily because he built the very first pyramid in Ancient Egypt (it is also the world’s first stone architectural structure). More precisely, it was built by the vizier of Djoser - a man with outstanding abilities named Imhotep. Unlike the later pyramid of Cheops, the pyramid of Djoser consists of steps. Initially, it was surrounded by a wall with 15 doors, and only one of them opened. At this point, there is nothing left of the wall.

There were several female pharaohs in the history of Ancient Egypt. One of them is Hatshepsut, who ruled in the 15th century BC. e. Her name can be translated as “being in front of noble ladies.” Having removed the young Thutmose III from the throne and declaring herself pharaoh, Hatshepsut continued the restoration of Egypt after the Hyksos raids and erected a large number of monuments on the territory of her state. In terms of the number of progressive reforms carried out, she surpassed many male pharaohs.

During the time of Hatshepsut, it was believed that the pharaohs were the incarnations of the god Horus in the earthly world. In order not to sow confusion among the people, the priests reported that Hatshepsut was the daughter of the god Amun. But at many ceremonies, Hatshepsut still appeared in male attire and with a fake beard.

In modern Western culture, Queen Hatspsut has the image of an intelligent, energetic woman endowed with analytical abilities. A place for Hatshepsut was found, for example, in the famous exhibition “The Dinner Party” by artist Judy Chicago, dedicated to the great women who influenced the history of mankind.

Pharaoh Akhenaten, who ruled in the 14th century BC. e.- another popular figure in the history of Ancient Egypt. He carried out truly revolutionary religious reforms. He decided to make the previously insignificant god Aten, associated with the solar disk, the center of the entire religion. At the same time, the cults of all other gods (including Amun-Ra) were prohibited. That is, in fact, Akhenaten decided to create a monotheistic religion.

In his transformations, Akhenaten relied on people who held high positions in the state, but came from commoners. On the other hand, most of the hereditary priestly nobility actively resisted the reforms. Ultimately, Akhenaten lost - after his death, familiar religious practices returned to the everyday life of the Egyptians. Representatives of the new XIX dynasty, which came to power ten years later, abandoned the ideas of Akhenaten, these ideas were discredited.

Pharaoh-reformer Akhenaten, who, according to many scientists, was simply ahead of his time

And a few more words should be said about Cleopatra VII, who ruled Egypt for 21 years. She was truly an extraordinary and, apparently, very attractive woman. It is known that she had an affair first with Julius Caesar, and later with Mark Antony. From the first she gave birth to a son, and from the second - two sons and daughters.

And one more interesting fact: Mark Antony and Cleopatra, when they realized that they could not resist Emperor Octavian, who was eager to capture Egypt, began to organize endless drinking bouts and festive feasts. Soon, Cleopatra announced the creation of the “Union of Suicide Bombers,” whose members (and all close associates were invited to join it) swore an oath that they would die together. During the same period, Cleopatra tested poisons on slaves, wanting to find out which of them could bring death quickly and without severe pain.

In general, in 30 BC. e. Cleopatra, like her lover Antony, committed suicide. And Octavian, having established his control over Egypt, turned it into one of the provinces of Rome.

Unique buildings on the Giza plateau

The pyramids on the Giza plateau are the only one of the so-called seven wonders of the world that has survived to this day.

Of greatest interest to Egyptologists and ordinary people is the Pyramid of Cheops. Its construction lasted about two decades and was probably completed in 2540 BC. e. For its construction, 2,300,000 volumetric stone blocks were required, their total mass was seven million tons. The height of the pyramid is now 136.5 meters. The architect of this pyramid is called Hemiun, the vizier of Cheops.

Pharaoh Cheops gained the reputation of a classical despot. Some sources report that Cheops used harsh measures to force the population to work on the construction of the pyramid. The very name of Cheops after he died was allegedly prohibited from being pronounced. And Egypt's resources were so depleted as a result of his rule that this led to the weakening of the country and the end of the Fourth Dynasty.

The second largest ancient Egyptian pyramid on the same plateau is the Pyramid of Khafre, son of Cheops. It is indeed a little smaller, but at the same time it is located on a higher hill and has a steeper slope. The Pyramid of Khafre has the shape of a regular quadrangular figure with sides of 210.5 meters. Inside there is one burial chamber with an area of ​​71 m2, which once contained the sarcophagus of the pharaoh. This chamber can be accessed through one of two tunnels.

The third pyramid is the pyramid of Pharaoh Mikerin- was erected later than the other two. Its height barely reaches 66 meters, the length of its square base is 108.4 meters, and its volume is 260 thousand cubic meters. It is known that once the lower part of the pyramid was decorated with red Aswan granite, a little higher the granite was replaced by white limestone. And finally, at the very top, red granite was used again. Unfortunately, the cladding has not been preserved; in the Middle Ages, the Mamelukes took it from here and used it for their own needs. The burial chamber in this pyramid is located at ground level.

Near the three pyramids, everyone can see Great Sphinx- a statue of a lion with a human face. The length of this statue is 72 meters and the height is 20 meters. Once upon a time there was a sanctuary between the front paws. The exact time of creation of the Sphinx is unknown - there is debate about this. Some believe that it was built by Chefren, others say that it was Jephedra, another son of Cheops. There are also versions that the Sphinx appeared much earlier, about twelve thousand years ago (allegedly the ancient Egyptians simply dug it up during the dynastic period), and very dubious versions that the Sphinx was created by aliens.

Features of society and lifestyle of the ancient Egyptians

The Egyptians believed that after death they would face the judgment of the god Osiris, who would put their good and bad deeds on different scales. And in order for good deeds to outweigh, it is necessary to behave appropriately in earthly life.

In addition, it was important for the inhabitants of Ancient Egypt that their afterlife be similar to earthly life. Therefore, it was necessary to carefully prepare for the transition to another world. A wealthy Egyptian built an afterlife house for himself in advance. When the pharaoh died, not only his body was placed in his tomb, but also many things that could be useful in another life - clothes, jewelry, furniture, etc. In this regard, the fact that the first pyramids were stepped - probably the steps were required so that the pharaoh could ascend to the world of the gods.

Egyptian society consisted of several classes and social status was of great importance here. Wealthy Egyptians had wigs and elaborate headdresses in fashion, and they got rid of their own hair. In this way the problem of lice was solved. But poor people had a hard time - among them it was not customary to cut their hair to zero.

The main clothing of the Egyptians was the usual loincloth. But rich people, as a rule, also wore shoes. And the pharaohs were accompanied everywhere by sandal bearers - there was such a special position.

Another fun fact: for a long time in Egypt, transparent dresses were popular among wealthy women. In addition, to demonstrate their social status, Egyptian women (and Egyptians too) wore necklaces, bracelets and other similar accessories.

Some professions in ancient Greek society - warrior, official, priest - were inherited. However, achieving a significant position, thanks to your talents and skills, was also quite possible.

Most able-bodied Egyptians were employed in agriculture, handicrafts, or the service sector. And at the very bottom of the social ladder were slaves. They usually played the role of servants, but at the same time they had the right to buy and sell goods and receive freedom. And having become free, they could eventually even enter the nobility. The humane treatment of slaves is also evidenced by the fact that they were entitled to medical care at the workplace.

In general, Egyptian healers were very enlightened for their time. They had an excellent understanding of the characteristics of the human body and carried out very complex operations. According to research by Egyptologists, even transplanting some organs was not a problem for local healers. It is also interesting that in Ancient Egypt, some of the infectious diseases were treated with moldy bread - this can be considered a kind of analogue of modern antibiotics.

Also, the Egyptians actually invented mummification. This process looked like this: the internal organs were removed and placed in vessels, and soda was applied to the body itself so that it did not decompose. After the body dried, its cavities were filled with flax soaked in a special balm. And finally, at the last stage, the body was bandaged and closed in a sarcophagus.

Relations between men and women in ancient Egypt

In Ancient Egypt, men and women had virtually equal legal rights. At the same time, the mother was considered the head of the family. Pedigree was strictly traced through the maternal line and land ownership also passed from mother to daughter. Of course, the husband had the right to dispose of the land while his wife was alive, but when she died, the daughter received the entire inheritance. It turns out that a marriage with the heir to the throne could well give a man the right to rule the country. This was also the reason why the pharaoh took his sisters and daughters as wives - he thus protected himself from other possible contenders for power.

Marriages in Ancient Egypt were mostly monogamous. However, a wealthy Egyptian man, along with his legal wife, could maintain a concubine. On the other hand, a woman who had more than one man could be punished.

Marriage in Ancient Egypt was not sanctified by priests, and the Egyptians did not organize lavish wedding festivities either. For the wedding to be recognized as valid, the man had to say, “I take you as my wife,” and the woman had to answer, “You take me as your wife.” It is important to add here that it was the Egyptians who were the first to wear wedding rings on the ring finger - this custom was later adopted by the Greeks and Romans.

Ancient Egyptian newlyweds also exchanged gifts among themselves. Moreover, in the event of a divorce, you could return your gift (a very good custom). And in the later periods of the history of Ancient Egypt, the conclusion of marriage contracts became a fairly common practice.

Documentary film “Ancient Egypt. The history of the creation of ancient Egyptian civilization"