In 1648-1654, Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich radically reformed the army. The best parts of the old system were strengthened and enlarged - the elite Moscow local cavalry, Moscow archers and gunners. But most importantly, the regiments of the new system were massively created, which became the backbone of the army. In Europe, in connection with the end of the Thirty Years' War, many unemployed military specialists appeared who were useful in Russia. Even many prisoners voluntarily remained to serve, or even converted to Orthodoxy, forever linking their fate with their new homeland. By the way, those who left the service before the end of the contract were not accepted back, although very many asked. The cheapness of life and quite a decent salary attracted officers from Europe, where an overabundance of command personnel formed.

The most elite were two elective regiments, which means selective. The best, most experienced and well-trained soldiers were chosen here from other military units. The peculiarity was that even the initial people (chiefs) in these two regiments were appointed Russians. Foreigners - units. In Europe, military ranks were given by a special patent once and for all, and the specificity of Russia was the combination of a rank with a position. A person was appointed, for example, the captain of a certain regiment, and after its dissolution, he lost his rank.

The chosen soldiers belonged to different estates: boyar children, Cossack children, free, dacha peasants - surrendered to the army from state and landowner villages, etc. Residents made up the majority. This was the name of the lowest palace rank. At the royal court, this was the most massive category of nobles. The thinnest, the poorest, since she is dispossessed, and dependent. Surplus tenants were sent to serve as soldiers, as befits this class. They served on an equal footing with the rest, but had a little more chance of becoming the first people simply by birthright. The practice that existed at that time, however, allowed any ordinary soldier to become a nobleman for “good” service and military merit, having risen by only one military rank: “And then he can be with ordinary soldiers a corporal, that is, a gentry, because the first gentry of a parent is good service” . Then Peter I will push back the transition to the “gentry” from the first initial rank of corporal or corporal to the first officer rank. And in the middle of the 17th century, even the smallest initial person could only be a representative of the nobility. So the king complained for the service. Another thing is that the son of the boyar had the opportunity to immediately rise from the reiter to the rank of lieutenant. But again, for "wounds and blood", courage and military skill.

By the beginning of the new XVIII century, the elected regiments began to be called Lefortovsky and Butyrsky. And they became the backbone of the army of Peter I, along with the newly minted Preobrazhensky and Semenovsky.

Сitato loco:

Malov A.V. Moscow elective regiments of the soldier's system in the initial period of their history. 1656–1671 - M .: "Drevlekhranishche", 2006. - 624 p., ill.

The reforms of Alexei Mikhailovich (nicknamed the Quietest), under which the reformers A. L. Ordin-Nashchokin, F. M. Rtishchev, A. S. Matveev were at the head of the "government":

• in the political sphere - the continuation of the course towards the formation of autocracy: the termination of the convocations of Zemsky Sobors after 1653, the creation of the Order of Secret Affairs (the office under the tsar, which stood above other orders and could interfere in the affairs of all state institutions);

1649 - under the influence of the Moscow Salt Riot of 1648, a new code of Russian laws was drafted and adopted as soon as possible - the Cathedral Code, which historians call the code of feudal law. Its main points:

Protection of the interests of two social strata - the nobility (in the first place) and the top of the townspeople (townspeople);

Completion of the process of enslavement of the peasants (the abolition of St. George's Day and the establishment of an indefinite investigation of fugitive peasants), the approval of the monopoly of the feudal lords on the ownership of land and peasants;

• attack on the rights of the church: from now on, the church was forbidden to buy land and receive it from the rich as a gift (“for the remembrance of the soul”);
• the tsar is declared to be God's anointed, the concept of a state crime is introduced (insulting the tsar and his family, encroachment on them, disobedience to the authorities, and even more so a call to rebellion was punishable by death);
• in the economy - a protectionist course aimed at supporting domestic industry and trade, including the restriction of foreign merchants in Russia and the encouragement of domestic ones. Two main measures:
• 1653 - the Trade Charter was adopted, which replaced many internal customs duties with one duty from the price of the goods (which contributed to the formation of the internal all-Russian market);
• 1667 - on the initiative of A. L. Ordin-Nashchokin, the New Trade Charter was adopted, which forbade foreign merchants in Russia to trade at retail, trade among themselves and increased trade duties from them;
• in relation to the church:
• the subordination of the church to secular power as a result of the “case of Patriarch Nikon” in 1658-1667. (Nikon, who made a career from a rural sexton to a patriarch, defended the idea of ​​the supremacy of spiritual power over secular power and intervened more and more in the secular affairs of state administration, which caused the discontent of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich, who in 1666 convened the Ecumenical Council of all Orthodox patriarchs and removed Nikon from post of Patriarch of All Russia);
• the state supported the church reform initiated by Patriarch Nikon, which led to a split in Orthodox believers (the state began persecuting schismatics);

The cause of the church schism was an attempt to restore the unity of church rites and the content of liturgical books in Russia. In the 1640s in Moscow, a “circle of zealots of ancient piety” was formed, in which two positions arose regarding what models should be used to unify church services and books: the future Patriarch Nikon advocated Greek books, and Archpriest Avvakum advocated Old Russian. Supporters of Nikon (Nikonians) won: church council of 1666-1667. cursed all opponents of the reform (they began to be called schismatics), and the state began their military-police persecution and repression (to which the schismatics, at the call of Avvakum, responded with mass self-immolations - "burnings"). A feature of the split was that it had not only a religious (described above), but also a social side: the schismatics also opposed the merger of church and state, the transition to autocracy. registration of serfdom, the beginning of Europeanization.

• two measures for citizens:
• the townspeople were attached to the settlement (city) and could not freely leave it (the fugitives were returned and punished);
• part of the “white settlements” was liquidated in the cities (they belonged to large feudal lords and had economic benefits, which caused discontent among other townspeople);
• a new stage in the creation of "regiments of the new system".

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The social division of labor, the separation of handicraft activities from agriculture, played a huge role in the decomposition of primitive communal relations.

Settlements become centers of handicraft production and exchange, turn into cities. The city is a phenomenon characteristic not of the primitive communal system, but of the feudal system.

The growth of trade caused the development of money circulation. From the end of the 10th century, Russia began to mint its own gold and silver coins. Then the minted coin gives way to silver ingots - hryvnia.

Trade corrupted the community, further strengthening economically powerful families. The ruling elite in ancient Russian sources is called princes, warriors, boyars, old children, etc.

The basis of feudal society arises and develops - feudal ownership of land.

Various groups of dependent people are formed. Some of them, serfs, lost their freedom as a result of the sale of debt obligations, family or official status, other servants became slaves as a result of captivity. Over time, the term servants begins to denote the entire set of people dependent on the master.

The fight against the Scandinavian Vikings, the Varangians in the northwest, with the Khazars, and later with the Pechenegs, Turks and other nomadic tribes in the southeast and south, accelerated the process of folding powerful territorial associations that replaced tribal unions.

The merger of Kyiv and Novgorod completes the formation of the Old Russian state. The chronicle connected this event with the name of Oleg. In 882 as a result of the campaign of squads led by Oleg from Novgorod to Kyiv on the way "from the Varangians to the Greeks", both of the most important centers of Russia were united. The Kyiv prince began to create strongholds in the lands of the Eastern Slavs, collect tribute from them and demand their participation in campaigns. Kyiv became the capital of the Old Russian state. Kyiv was equally close to Byzantium, to the east and west, which contributed to the development of trade, political and cultural ties of Russia.

The end of the 10th century was marked by the completion of the unification of all the Eastern Slavs within the state borders of Kievan Rus. This unification takes place during the reign of Vladimir Svyatoslavovich.

3) Causes and significance of the adoption of Christianity in Russia.

4) Causes and nature of feudal fragmentation. The largest Russian principalities in the XII - early XIII centuries. A brief description of.

1st reason - the growth of boyar estates, the number of dependent smerds in them 2nd reason - the growth of clashes between smerds and townspeople with the boyars 3rd reason - the growth and strengthening of cities as new political and cultural centers. 4 reason - the decline of the Kyiv land from the constant Polovtsian raids and the decline of the power of the Grand Duke

the authors were inclined to see the main reason for the fragmentation of Russia in a change in the order of succession of the principalities. One of the political reasons for feudal fragmentation should be considered constant princely strife. The princes sought to seize the most profitable lands for their reign, and also, relying on the local boyars and their own squads, tried to gain a foothold in these territories. Princely strife ruined the people and the squad, shook the Russian state, but did not introduce any new political form.

Princely strife at the end of the 11th century. took on the character of a national disaster.

The second reason- this is the decline of the Kyiv land and Kyiv itself. The population of the capital and the surrounding area began to look for other, more favorable regions for life, running away from the constant Polovtsian raids and princely strife. It went most often to the west, towards the Carpathians, or to the north, into the forests of the Vyatichi and the upper and middle Volga. There, the nomads were no longer afraid: they simply did not reach there, and the princes did not argue over these outlying territories. Another reason that led to the decline of Kyiv was the movement of trade routes, which now bypassed the capital of the Old Russian state.

During the existence of Kievan Rus, the foundations of feudalism continued to grow stronger: more and more territories fell under the rule of the boyars, feudal estates were formed, and with them the number of dependent peasants grew. The involvement of the communal peasants in personal feudal dependence was also achieved through their economic enslavement. The exploitation of dependent peasants was carried out mainly through the collection of food rent from them and, to a lesser extent, through working off in the master's economy.

The third economic reason is the fragile economic ties between the principalities and the dominance of natural economy (production not for sale, but for own consumption). It was the rich elite of the cities that opposed the power of the great Kyiv prince quite actively. New barren lands were developed, where arable farming developed, crafts developed rapidly (about 60 specialties).

In large trade and craft cities, craft and merchant associations are created with elected elders at the head, with their own “treasury” and their patronal churches (“streets”, “rows”, “hundreds”, “brothers”, “obchiny”).

Among the positive features of fragmentation, it is worth mentioning the further growth of cities and patrimonial economy (at that time it was the most progressive form of management), which allowed the regions to act as full-fledged independent states (Novgorod, Galich). Crafts and culture continued to develop, remarkable cathedrals and civil buildings were built, significant written monuments appeared (for example, The Tale of Igor's Campaign). The Orthodox Church was gaining strength.

But there were also negative features. First of all, these are the ongoing strife between the princes, which not only caused enormous harm to the ordinary population, but also weakened the country's defense capability. The political disintegration of the country led to the activation of the Polovtsians. Fragmented Russia could not resist the Mongol-Tatar army in the future. Kievan Rus. Guidelines for the theoretical study of the course

However, even during the period of feudal fragmentation, there was a connection between seemingly completely separate territories. There were several such connecting threads. Firstly, it is the historical authority of Kyiv and the power of the Kievan princes. The second is the influence of the church. The Metropolitan of Kyiv was the head of the entire Russian Orthodox Church. In addition, during the princely strife, the church, as a rule, advocated the unity of the Russian lands. Thirdly, the population of the former Old Russian state continued to consider itself a single community, a single concept of Russia, the Russian land, continued to exist.

During the period of feudal fragmentation in Russia, three centers especially stood out: the Vladimir-Suzdal, Galicia-Volyn principalities and the Novgorod Republic.

Each of the principalities not only had its own internal order (land system), but also pursued an independent foreign policy.

Mikhail Fedorovich and his policy

So, the time of troubles is over and a new tsar comes to the throne. Before the 16-year-old Mikhail, a country with large territorial losses, deep economic decline and the complete collapse of statehood. Economically and politically, the country was thrown back several centuries. The state apparatus collapsed, the tax system practically did not function, and there was nothing to pay for the army. Mikhail Romanov, as the tsar, seemed to suit everyone, since they chose, according to the historian V. O. Klyuchevsky, "not the most capable, but the most convenient."

Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich was young and inexperienced, and until 1619 the country was ruled by the great old woman Martha and her relatives. The historian N. I. Kostomarov says the following about this period: “There were no people near the young tsar who were distinguished by intelligence and energy: everything was just ordinary mediocrity. The former sad history of Russian society bore bitter fruits. The torments of Ivan the Terrible, the insidious reign of Boris, and finally, the turmoil and the complete breakdown of all state ties produced a miserable, petty generation, a generation of stupid and narrow people who were little able to rise above everyday interests. Under the new sixteen-year-old king, neither Sylvester nor Adashev of the old days appeared. Michael himself was naturally kind, but, it seems, of a melancholic disposition, not gifted with brilliant abilities, but not without intelligence; but he did not receive any education and, as they say, having ascended the throne, he could hardly read.

Then, after the release of Patriarch Filaret from Polish captivity in 1619, the actual power passed into the hands of the latter, who also bore the title of Great Sovereign. State charters of that time were written on behalf of the tsar and the patriarch.

In domestic politics, it was necessary to achieve stabilization, since anti-government serfs and Cossacks continued to roam Russia. The consequences of the turmoil in agriculture were felt until the middle of the 17th century. Strengthening their power, the Romanovs distributed land to the nobility. The power of the feudal lords over the peasants increased.

The main task facing Russia was to restore the country's ruined economy, internal order and stability. Mikhail Fedorovich took the path of securing the peasants for their owners. In 1619, a five-year search was again announced, and in 1637, a nine-year search for fugitives. In 1642, a decree was again issued on a ten-year term for the search for fugitives and a fifteen-year search for forcibly taken peasants.

The main task that Mikhail's government tried to solve was the liberation of the Smolensk land. In 1632 the Russian army laid siege to Smolensk and took Dorogobuzh, Serpeisk, and other cities. Then Poland agreed with the Crimean Khan on joint actions against Russia. The Crimean Tatars broke through into the depths of Russian territory, reached Serpukhov, plundering the settlements located on the banks of the Oka. Many nobles and boyar children , who had estates in the southern regions, left Smolensk to defend their lands from the Tatars. The Polish king Vladislav IV approached Smolensk and surrounded the Russian army. On February 19, 1634, the Russians capitulated, giving the Poles all their cannons and laying down their banners at the royal feet. Vladislav IV moved further east, but was stopped under the Belaya fortress. In March 1634, the Polyanovsky peace treaty was concluded between Russia and Poland. According to it, Poland returned the city of Serpeysk to Russia, for which 20 thousand rubles had to be paid. Vladislav IV renounced his claims to the Russian throne and recognized Michael as the Russian Tsar.

After all these events, the restoration of the old and the construction of a new notch began. in the south of the country. Moscow began to actively use the Don Cossacks to fight Turkey and the Crimean Khanate. During the reign of Michael, good relations were established with Persia, which provided financial assistance to Russia during the Russo-Polish War of 1632-34. The territory of Russia increased due to the addition of a number of Siberian regions to it.

The situation inside the country was difficult. In 1616, popular movements took place, in which peasants, serfs, and non-Russian peoples of the Volga region took part. In 1627, a royal decree was issued, allowing the nobles to transfer their estates by inheritance, subject to service to the king. Thus, noble estates were equated with boyar estates. . After Mikhail came to power, a 5-year investigation of runaway serfs was established. This did not suit the nobility, which required an extension of the investigation period. The government met the nobles halfway: in 1637 it set the term for catching fugitives to 9 years, and in 1641 increased it by another year, and those who were taken by other owners were allowed to search for 15 years.

Reign results:

1. The conclusion of the "eternal peace" with Sweden (Stolbovsky peace of 1617). The borders established by the Peace of Stolbov remained until the start of the Northern War of 1700-1721. Despite the loss of access to the Baltic Sea, large territories previously conquered by Sweden were returned.

2. Deulino truce (1618), and then the "eternal peace" with the Commonwealth (Polyanovsky peace of 1634). The Polish King and Grand Duke of Lithuania Vladislav IV renounced his claims to the Russian throne.

3. Establishment of a strong centralized authority throughout the country through the appointment of governors and local elders. Overcoming the most difficult consequences of the Time of Troubles, restoring a normal economy and trade.

4. Accession to Russia of the lower Urals (Yaik Cossacks), Baikal, Yakutia and Chukotka, access to the Pacific Ocean.

5. Reorganization of the army (1631-1634).

11. Activity of the first Romanovs: tasks and results.

Creation of regiments of the "new system": Reiter, Dragoon, soldier.

6. Foundation of the first ironworks near Tula (1632).

7. The foundation of the German settlement in Moscow - the settlement of foreign engineers and military specialists. In less than 100 years, many residents of "Kukuy" will play a key role in the reforms of Peter I the Great.

Alexey Mikhailovich

Mikhail Fedorovich had ten children, but by the end of the tsar's life, of all the heirs, only Alexei survived. He succeeded his deceased father on the throne.

Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich (1645-1676) began his reign at the age of 16. For the first time after a long break, the royal throne was occupied by a political activity sovereign. Received the nickname "Quiet".

In 1648, an uprising broke out in Moscow, which went down in history as the Salt Riot. In an attempt to increase budget revenues, the government reduced direct taxes, but increased the duty on salt, which led to a 4-fold increase in its price. Muscovites rebelled, demanded to extradite the head of government B. I. Morozov and some other boyars. The demands of the rebels were partially satisfied (Morozov was briefly sent into "exile", Pleshcheev, Chistov, Trakhaniotov were executed), and the situation in Moscow stabilized. In other cities, unrest continued until February 1649.

In 1648, using the experience of creating regiments of a foreign system during the reign of his father, Alexei Mikhailovich began to reform the army.

During the reform of 1648 - 1654, the best parts of the "old system" were strengthened and enlarged. The main direction of the reform was the mass creation of regiments of the new system: Reiters, soldiers, dragoons and hussars. These regiments formed the backbone of the new army of Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich. To fulfill the goals of the reform, a large number of European military specialists were recruited into the service.

In 1654, the tsar ordered that rubles be minted from the thalers accumulated in the treasury. Due to the complexity of making stamps, it was not possible to re-mint all those thalers. In 1655, thalers began to be overmarked on one side with two stamps. Such a coin was called "Efimok with a sign." Efimok and the ruble were equal to 64 kopecks. The thaler, cut into four parts, was minted, thus a quarter (half-fifty dollars) appeared in circulation. A half-efimok coin was also introduced (a taler cut in half with a countermark). "Efimok with a sign" and its shares (half-efimok and a quarter). A copper fifty-kopeck piece was put into circulation. The collection of taxes was ordered to be made in silver, and payments from the treasury - in copper coins. Thus the king quickly replenished the treasury with silver. However, the peasants refused to sell grain, and the merchants refused to sell goods for copper, which resulted in a copper riot. Subsequently, copper coins were withdrawn from circulation. The monetary reform of Alexei Mikhailovich is considered unsuccessful.

From the internal orders under Tsar Alexei, the following can be distinguished: a ban on Belomests (monasteries and persons who were in state, military or civil service) to own black, taxable lands and industrial, commercial establishments (shops, etc.) in the settlement; the final attachment of taxable classes, peasants and townspeople, to the place of residence; the transition was forbidden in 1648 not only to the peasant owners, but also to their children, brothers and nephews.

Domestic policy of Russia in the middle of the XVII century. was aimed at raising taxes from the peasants for the needs of the army, so among the peasants there were many dissatisfied with such a policy. According to the Council Code of 1649, the search for fugitive peasants was indefinite, but there was an unwritten law “there is no extradition from the Don,” so the peasants fled to the Don to the Cossacks. The Cossacks hunted for military campaigns for zipuns (booty) against neighboring countries. In 1666, a detachment of Vasily Us of 500 people headed towards Moscow to offer their services to the government, but the governors received an order to send the Cossacks back to the Don.

In the field of legislation: the Council Code was compiled and published (it was printed for the 1st time on May 7-20, 1649) and supplementing it in some respects: the New Trade Charter of 1667, New decree articles on robbery and murderous cases of 1669, New decree articles on estates of 1676 year, military regulations in 1649. Russia also united with Ukraine in 1654.

The highest bodies of state power

In the 17th century finally formed the national form of the monarchy - the autocracy.

During the period of restoration of Russian statehood, Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich and Patriarch Filaret relied on the Church and the entire system of estate bodies in Russia to strengthen the autocracy.

From the second half of the 17th century, during the reign of Alexei Mikhailovich, centralization and bureaucratization intensified. government controlled, the process of desacralization and rationalization of power in the elite public consciousness is born, and the autocracy begins to evolve towards absolute, i.e. politically unlimited monarchy.

The relationship between the concepts of autocracy and absolutism, the dominant prerequisites for the transition to absolute monarchy, remain debatable in the historical and legal literature.

central administration

Already in the first years of the Romanov dynasty, the order system was restored, gradually being introduced into all branches of government, although initially the system of orders itself did not undergo fundamental changes.

In the first half of the XVII century. the state faced a difficult financial situation as a result of the devastation after the Time of Troubles. This entailed an increase in the fiscal activity of orders. The execution of quarter orders is being completed, new permanent and temporary central institutions were created that were in charge of tax collection - the New Quarter (1619), the order of the Great Treasury (1621). The creation of the Cossack and Pansky orders secured the social status and economic position of the Cossacks and foreigners who participated in the militia troops. They added to the rapidly growing number of military-administrative orders. All military administration was still concentrated in the Discharge Order, which was in charge of the nobles as a military service estate, affairs to strengthen cities and border lines. The cumbersome system of orders, with its centralization and bureaucracy, could hardly cope with the functions assigned to it, gave rise to red tape, abuse, and bribery.

Main article: Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov

Noble army

The basis of the medieval Moscow army was the cavalry. Each nobleman was obliged to appear for military service "in public, on horseback and in arms", that is, having several military servants with him, sitting on a good horse and sparkling with strong steel armor. The nobles were mounted hundreds and tens.

After the Time of Troubles, the numerical strength of the noble army was greatly reduced. Many died in battle. And of those who survived, few could serve properly. The reason was simple: the well-being of the nobles was built on peasant labor, and the peasants suffered from the disasters of the Time of Troubles even more than the landowners. To go on a campaign in full readiness, a nobleman had to have about 50 peasants. In fact, many of the landowners had much fewer peasants and constantly asked the sovereign for a monetary salary. The treasury, empty during the years of Troubles, could not withstand such a load.

To strengthen the noble army, the government of Mikhail Romanov in the 20s. 17th century was forced to go for a wide distribution of state and palace lands as estates.

Carefully unraveling the knots of property disputes, supporting the nobility with the distribution of estates, the first Romanovs gradually restored the army of the old model. At the same time, they were building a new, regular army, in which the main role was assigned not to the cavalry, but to the infantry.

Regiments of the "foreign (new) system"

The events of the beginning of the 17th century clearly showed the serious shortcomings of the noble army - weak discipline and poor controllability on the battlefield. The nobles did not know the order, they did not know how to perform maneuvers on command, to conduct salvo fire. In this regard, it was decided to create regiments of the “foreign (new) system” - soldier (foot), Reiter (horse) and dragoon (both on foot and on horseback). For service in the regiments, volunteers were recruited from among free people and Cossacks. They received state cash salaries, firearms and edged weapons, horses, and uniforms. The commanders of these regiments were usually appointed foreigners experienced in military affairs. Material from the site http://wikiwhat.ru

The creation of new regiments ran into two serious obstacles. Firstly, the treasury did not have the funds for their permanent and full financing. The government was compelled in peacetime to send the soldiers and reiters home, leaving them to earn their own living. Sometimes they were given small plots of land and a loan to build a house. Secondly, in Russia there were not so many free people suitable for service in the army. The authorities had to switch to forced mobilization - the recruitment of "subsistence people", mainly from the peasants. By a special royal decree, the population was ordered to put up one soldier or reiter from a certain number of households. The impoverished nobles were also enrolled as soldiers.

Despite all the difficulties, the regular army grew. And already in 1681, it included 60 thousand soldiers and 30 thousand reiters. And the total number of the noble army was only 16 thousand people.

Politics of the Romanovs

horsemen. In addition, the fighting force of Russia was represented by more than 50 thousand archers and about 30 thousand cavalry "serving aliens", mainly Tatars and Bashkirs.

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D. Reform of Alexei Mikhailovich Romanov

In 1654, under Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich (1645-1676), for the first time, real ruble silver coins were issued - "efimki", minted from West German thalers - full-fledged walking coins of Europe. For the first time, the inscription "Ruble" was placed on the coin, on the front side - a double-headed eagle, on the back - the king on horseback. However, at that time the ruble was an inferior coin, it contained less silver than 100 silver kopecks. Its actual cost was 64 kopecks.

Also, copper kopecks were put into circulation on the model of silver ones, in fact, according to the 400-ruble coin stack.

An attempt to introduce money turnover unsecured lightweight money led to inflation and an increase in internal tensions and eventually ended in popular unrest. In 1655, the production of “efimki” was discontinued, they were replaced by full-weight thalers with a stamp (a rider on a horse and a year - 1655), which were called “ efimki with signs", and after the Copper Riot in Moscow, the issue of copper coins was also discontinued.

The regular minting of silver rubles and copper kopecks began only in 1704 during the monetary reform of 1700-1718.

The 17th century is called the "rebellious age". The scope and severity of the popular movements were explained by many reasons: the completion of the process of enslaving the peasantry and the deterioration of the position of the taxable estates (the Cathedral Code of 1649), energetic actions aimed at centralizing the state (in particular, increasing taxes, streamlining the monetary system, attempts to reduce state spending, etc. .), church schism. The drop that overflowed the cup of patience was often the clumsy and even criminal behavior of civil servants (bribery, red tape). A characteristic feature of the social movements of the XVII century. - participation of a wide variety of segments of the population:

townspeople and service people, nobles, Cossacks, peasants, archers, and sometimes boyars.

A series of city uprisings opens with the Moscow Salt Riot of 1648. The protest of the archers against non-payment of salaries merged with the dissatisfaction of the township, outraged by the abuses of employees, and the nobles, who demanded the abolition of fixed-term summer, attach the peasants to the land. The rebellion took such sharp forms that it forced Tsar Alexei Mikhailovich to hand over the hated dignitaries (L. Pleshcheev, P. Trakhaniotov, etc.) to reprisal, send the head of the government, boyar B. Morozov, into exile and urgently convene the Zemsky Sobor, adopt the Cathedral Code. Unrest also took place in Voronezh, Vladimir, Kozlov, and others. In 1650, uprisings broke out in Novgorod and Pskov. Protesting against the decision to pay off debts with Sweden by transferring grain stocks to it, as well as against rising prices, the Novgorodians and Pskovites removed the tsarist governors from power, established an elected administration headed by zemstvo elders, and sent petitioners to Moscow. The answer was the arrival of government troops in Novgorod and Pskov and the suppression of the protest (Novgorod submitted relatively easily, Pskov resisted for several months). The last major urban uprising was the Copper Riot in Moscow (1662), caused by an unsuccessful monetary reform: the minting of copper coins inflated the ruble, prices rose, and the salaries of soldiers and archers, and the incomes of artisans fell. The pogroms of the boyar courts, the appearance of excited petitioners before the tsar in Kolomenskoye, cruel reprisals and public executions - such is the history of this rebellion.

Throughout the 17th century it was restless on the Don, in the Cossack villages. Fugitive serfs from the central regions of Russia came here for freedom and security from time immemorial. The Cossacks - the main military support of the state on the southern borders of Russia - had to be reckoned with. In the traditions of the Don Cossacks there were "campaigns for zipuns", predatory raids on the coast of the Azov, Black, and Caspian Seas. Thus began the movement of Cossacks and peasants under the leadership of Stepan Razin. In 1667-1669. his detachment attacked merchant and royal caravans on the Volga and the Caspian Sea (possessions of Persia). In 1670, having rested on the Don, Razin set off on a campaign against the "sovereign traitors" - boyars, governors, nobles, clerks, for the "good king" and "freedom" (calls "charming", from the word "seduce", letters ). The rebels assured that they were supported by the disgraced Patriarch Nikon and Tsarevich Alexei. Peasants, townspeople, archers, peoples of the Volga region joined the movement. Tsaritsyn, Astrakhan, Samara, Saratov were captured, Simbirsk was besieged. Only in early October did the troops succeed in defeating the main forces of the rebels. Razin went to the Don, where he was captured, handed over to the tsar, and in June 1671 executed in Moscow. In the uprising of S. Razin, all the features of the popular movements of the 17th-18th centuries are noticeable: spontaneity, poor organization, locality, cruelty, which was shown by both the rebels and the authorities.

created conflicts and church schism. The Old Believers, holding on to the "old faith" and rejecting the "Latin charm" (liturgical books and rites corrected according to Greek models), resisted desperately and stubbornly. In 1668 an uprising broke out in the Solovetsky Monastery. It took eight years to suppress the protest of the monks who did not want to accept church innovations. The depth, radicalism, high pace of Peter's reforms, the harsh and even cruel nature of their implementation explain the mass character and variety of forms of popular movements of the late 17th - first quarter of the 18th centuries: the uprisings of archers (1682 and 1698), the uprising of archers and townspeople in Astrakhan (1705 -1706), Bashkir uprising (1705-1711), uprising of the Cossacks led by Kondraty Bulavin (1707-1708). The participation of archers, townspeople, Cossacks, peoples of the Volga region and the Urals, Old Believers, peasants gives a clear idea of ​​the price that society paid for the necessary, but extremely painful reforms.

The culmination of popular movements of the second half of the XVIII century. (the uprising of the peasants in Kizhi, the plague riot of 1771 in Moscow, etc.) was an uprising led by Emelyan Pugachev. In scope (Middle and Lower Volga, Urals, Trans-Urals), number (at least 30 thousand) and composition of participants (Cossacks, serfs, peoples of the Volga region, schismatic Old Believers, working people of the Ural factories), level of organization (Pugachev, declaring himself miraculously saved by Emperor Peter III, established a "military board", issued "manifestos" on the abolition of serfdom, all taxes, recruitment duty, appointed "generals" from his associates, established his own order) Pugachevshchina became the most powerful popular protest movement in history Russia. This was the response of the masses to the strengthening of serfdom, the infringement of the freedoms of the Cossacks, and the merciless treatment of the workers of the Ural factories. Three stages are distinguished in Pugachev's movement: September 1773 - April 1774 (the siege of Orenburg by the rebels, successful actions near Ufa, Yekaterinburg, Chelyabinsk, etc., defeat at the Tatishchev fortress); May-July 1774 (successful actions in the Urals, the capture of Kazan and a heavy defeat inflicted by General Mikhelson); July-September 1774 (flight, which, according to A.S. Pushkin, seemed to be an invasion: movement along the Volga to the south, the capture of Saransk, Penza, Saratov, the siege of Tsaritsyn and the defeat inflicted by the insurgent army under the command of A.V.

§ 7. THE REIGN OF MIKHAIL ROMANOV

Suvorov). Pugachev, betrayed by the Cossack foremen, was executed in Moscow in January 1775.

Pugachev's uprising had very serious consequences: Catherine II's rejection of plans for reforms in the spirit of enlightened absolutism; reorganization of the local government system; the liquidation of the Cossack self-government on the Don, the abolition of the Zaporozhian Sich; great economic damage. At the same time, Pugachevism clearly showed that serfdom was becoming obsolete, becoming the cause of dangerous social discontent.

Calling Mikhail Fedorovich to the kingdom, N. S.

What tasks were facing the government of Mikhail Romanov

Mikhail Fedorovich Romanov became tsar at a difficult time. He had to restore the country's economy, return the lands lost during unsuccessful wars. Correct all the negative effects of the Time of Troubles.

Domestic policy. During the reign of Mikhail Romanov, the question of the peasants became acute. In 1613, a mass distribution of state lands took place. As a result, masses of people rushed to the sparsely populated and empty lands. In 1627, a law was passed that allowed the nobles to transfer their lands by inheritance only on condition of service to the king. Noble lands were equated with boyar estates. A 5-year investigation of fugitive peasants was also established. But the nobility demanded the abolition of fixed summer. Then, in 1637, the period of detecting peasants was extended to 9 years, in 1641 - to 10 years, and those who were taken out by other owners could be searched for for 15 years. This was an indicator of the enslavement of the peasants. For improvement tax system twice the compilation of scribe books was carried out.

It was also necessary to centralize power. A voivodeship administration appeared, the order system was restored. Since 1620, Zemsky Sobors began to carry out only deliberative functions. They met to resolve issues that require the approval of estates (questions about taxes, about war and peace, about the introduction of new money, etc.).

Mikhail also tried to create a regular army. In the 30s, the so-called "regiments of the new system" appeared, they included free people and boyar children, and foreigners were officers. At the end of his reign, Michael created cavalry dragoon regiments that guarded the external borders of the state.

Mikhail was also involved in the restoration of Moscow. In 1624, the Filaret belfry (in the Kremlin), a stone tent and a clock with a fight (above the Frolovskaya (Spasskaya) tower) were built.

In 1632, the first railway plant near Tula was opened.

In 1633, a special machine was installed in the Sviblova Tower to supply water from the Moscow River.

In 1635-1639, the Terem Palace was built, and the Kremlin cathedrals were reconstructed. Velvet Yard appeared in Moscow - an enterprise for training in velvet making. Kadashevskaya Sloboda became the center of textile production.

Under Mikhail, imported garden roses first appeared in Russia.

The tsar also founded the men's Znamensky Monastery.

The German Sloboda was founded in Moscow. Foreign military and engineers lived in it. In 100 years they will play an important role in the reforms of Peter I.

Major Political Decisions of the First Romanovs! ! :DDDD…

Major Political Decisions of the First Romanovs! ! :DDDD

• Historians attribute the first Romanovs to Mikhail Fedorovich (1596 - 1645), the tsar (1613 - 1645) - the founder of the royal and imperial dynasty of the Romanovs. In February 1613, 16-year-old Mikhail Romanov was elected the "Sovereign of All Russia" by the Zemsky Sobor. Upon accession to the throne, Michael began collecting treasury, bread and property to support the troops who took part in the struggle to liberate the state from external and internal enemies. During the reign of Mikhail Fedorovich, relations with foreign states were resumed. He died at the age of 49 and was buried in the Archangel Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. Mikhail Fedorovich got a completely ruined country. The Swedes were in Novgorod. The Poles occupied 20 Russian towns. The Tatars robbed the southern Russian lands without interruption. Crowds of beggars and gangs of robbers roamed the country. There was not a single ruble in the tsar's treasury. The Poles did not recognize the elections of the Zemsky Sobor in 1613 as valid. In 1617, the Polish prince Vladislav organized a campaign against Moscow, stood at the walls of the Kremlin and demanded that the Russians choose him as their tsar. And the young tsar was sitting in the Kremlin. He did not even have enough troops to leave the Kremlin and fight Vladislav. Father Metropolitan Philaret, an experienced politician, could help him in matters of government, but he was in Polish captivity. Michael's position on the throne was desperate. But society, tired of the disasters of the Time of Troubles, rallied around its young king and provided him with all kinds of help. At first, the tsar's mother and her relatives, the Boyar Duma, played an important role in governing the country. The first 10 years of the reign Zemsky Sobors met continuously. In 1619, the king's father returned from Polish captivity. In Moscow, he was proclaimed patriarch. Based on the interests of the state, Filaret removed his wife and all her relatives from the throne. Clever, powerful, experienced, he, together with his son, confidently began to rule the country until his death in 1633. After that, Mikhail himself quite successfully dealt with the affairs of state government. Measures of the Romanovs to withdraw the country from the Time of Troubles The Romanovs defended the country's independence. Mikhail did not have the strength to fight with opponents. It was necessary to put up with those with whom it was possible. It was not difficult to negotiate with the Swedes. They did not need swampy Russian lands in the north of the country. Their goal was to cut off Russia from the Baltic Sea. In 1617, the Stolbovsky peace was concluded with Sweden (the village of Stolbovo, not far from Tikhvin, modern Leningrad region). Sweden returned Novgorod, but left behind the coast of the Baltic Sea. The Poles were tired of the long war and agreed to a truce. In 1618, the Deulino truce was concluded for 14.5 years (the village of Deulino near the Trinity - Sergius Monastery). The Poles returned to the Russians the father of the tsar, Metropolitan Filaret, and other boyars, but left behind them Smolensk, the most important Russian fortress on the western border, and other Russian cities. Thus, Russia lost significant territories, but the Romanovs defended the independence of Russia. The Romanovs put an end to crime in the country, using the most brutal measures. Thus, detachments of Cossacks of Ataman Ivan Zarutsky represented a great danger to Tsar Mikhail Fedorovich. Marina Mnishek moved to him after the death of False Dmitry II. Marina Mniszek was the Russian tsarina, and her son from the Tushinsky thief - "Vorenok" - was a legitimate pretender to the Russian throne.

  Russian history

  The detachment of I. Zarutsky wandered around the country and did not recognize Mikhail Romanov as king. The Romanovs began to persecute I. Zarutsky. The Yaik Cossacks handed over I. Zarutsky and Marina Mnishek to the Moscow authorities. I. Zarutsky and 3-year-old Ivan - "Raven" - were hanged in Moscow, and Marina Mnishek was imprisoned in Kolomna, where she died. Read more HERE:

Strengthening autocracy

Under Alexei Mikhailovich, the strengthening of the autocratic, unrestricted power of the tsar continued, in the second half of the 17th century. Zemsky Sobors were not convened, but the command system of government reached its peak, and the process of its bureaucratization was intensively going on. A special role was played by the Secret Order established in 1654, which was directly subordinate to Alexei Mikhailovich and allowed him to direct other central and local institutions. Important changes have taken place in social sphere: there was a process of rapprochement between the estate and the patrimony, the decomposition of the "service city" system began. The government of Alexei Mikhailovich supported the interests of the Russian merchants, the Customs (1653) and Novotorgovy (1667) Charters protected merchants from foreign competitors. A reflection of new trends in Russian life was the invitation to serve in Russia of foreign specialists, the creation of regiments of the "foreign system".

Reforms of Alexei Mikhailovich

In the second half of the 17th century. the transformation of the entire system of Russian traditional culture begins, secular literature arises, including poetry, secular painting is born, the first “comedy performances” are arranged at the court. The crisis of traditionalism also covers the sphere of ideology. Alexei Mikhailovich is one of the initiators of the church reform carried out since 1652 by Patriarch Nikon. In 1666-67, the church council cursed the "Old Belief" and ordered the "city authorities" to burn anyone who "puts blasphemy on the Lord God." Despite personal sympathy for Archpriest Avvakum, Alexei Mikhailovich took an uncompromising position in the fight against the Old Believers: in 1676, the Old Believer citadel, the Solovetsky Monastery, was destroyed. The exorbitant ambition of Patriarch Nikon and his frank claims to secular power led to a conflict with the tsar, which ended in Nikon's deposition. The manifestations of the crisis in the social sphere were the 1662 riot in Moscow, brutally suppressed by Alexei Mikhailovich, and the Cossack uprising led by S.T. Razin, with difficulty suppressed by the government. Alexei Mikhailovich himself participated in foreign policy negotiations and military campaigns (1654-1656). In 1654, the unification of Ukraine with Russia took place, and the war with the Commonwealth that began after that (1654-1667) ended with the signing of the Andrusovo truce and the consolidation of Russia in Left-Bank Ukraine. But attempts to reach the shores of the Baltic Sea (Russian-Swedish war of 1656-58) did not lead to success.

A man of transitional times, Alexei Mikhailovich was sufficiently educated, the first of the Russian tsars to break the tradition and began to sign documents with his own hand. A number of literary works are also attributed to him, including “Message to the Solovki”, “The Tale of the Repose of Patriarch Joseph”, “The Officer of the Falconer's Way”, etc.

From the first marriage with M.I. Miloslavskaya (1648) Alexei Mikhailovich had 13 children (including Tsars Fedor Alekseevich and Ivan V, Princess Sofya Alekseevna), from his second marriage with N.K. Naryshkina (1671) - 3 children (including Tsar Peter I).

Culture and life. church schism

The split occurred due to external paraphernalia, but it took the form of extreme confrontation. They also affected worldview factors. Many Russian historians (including S. M. Solovyov, V. O. Klyuchevsky and others) portrayed the schism as a conflict that affected only the sphere of ritual. L. Tikhomirov, S. Platonov, B. Bashilov believed that this view does not reflect the full depth of the split, which became the most difficult test for people's self-consciousness.

The most influential of the church traditionalists were Ivan Neronov, Avvakum Petrov, Stefan Vonifatiev (who had the opportunity to become patriarch instead of Nikon, but refused to nominate himself), Andrei Denisov, Spiridon Potemkin. They were gifted and intelligent people, far from religious fanaticism. For example, Potemkin knew five foreign languages, Avvakum was a talented writer, an innovator in style and principles of literary representation. Interestingly, the first impulses for reform came precisely from this group, to which, by the way, Nikon belonged from 1645 to 1652. The question of correcting the errors accumulated over the centuries in liturgical texts was first raised within the walls of the Trinity-Sergius Lavra

After the business of copying books turned out to be in the hands of visitors, supporters of antiquity came out under the flag of "keepers of ancient piety." The intransigence acquired in the Time of Troubles against any attempt on the Old Russian Orthodox tradition had an effect. The correction of church texts according to Greek models, voluntarily or involuntarily, called into question the canon of Russian Orthodox saints. Nikon's reform crossed out the decisions of the Stoglavy Cathedral of 1551, which consolidated adherence to the "old times", cast a shadow on the tradition of the school of Sergius of Radonezh, which emphasized the special nature of Russian Orthodoxy, its difference from Byzantine. From the point of view of historical facts, Avvakum and his comrades were right: not the Russians, but the Greeks retreated from the traditions of the first Christians, revising ritual norms in the 12th century. As for the correction of sacred books, the Greeks had no less errors and mistakes than the Russians.

Having entered into union with Catholicism in 1439, the Greeks, according to the Russians, lost their right to primacy in the Orthodox world. Even Ivan the Terrible expressed a common position for Russians: “The Greeks are not the gospel to us. We do not have a Greek, but a Russian faith.” The piety of the Greeks in Russia was called into question.

Nikon, after the removal of the Moscow rulers of the sacred texts, invited not only the people of Kiev, but also foreigners, among whom Paisiy Ligarid and Arseniy the Greek stood out. It is significant that Arseniy the Greek changed his religion three times, at one time he was even a Muslim, and Ligarides was excommunicated by the Patriarch of Constantinople from the Orthodox Church for his sympathy for Catholicism. Nikon managed to win over to his side some representatives of the higher clergy of the Russian Orthodox Church: Dmitry Rostovsky, Hilarion Ryazansky, Pavel Sarsky and others. Simeon Polotsky, his students Sylvester Medvedev and Karion Istomin declared the spiritual baggage of Russia to be of no particular value. The whole sum of habitual ideas and everyday axioms, in the inviolability of which the entire Russian population was sure, was denied. Russian culture was declared backward, European standards were adopted.

The controversy between the Old Believers and the Nikonians turned into a real ideological war. Avvakum and his associates tried to act with the power of logic. Their opponents used to resort to outright forgeries (as was, for example, the notorious "Conciliar act against the heretic Martin"). The possibility of a compromise was scanty - the controversy acquired such a strong intensity. In addition, the victory of the Nikonians was actually guaranteed: they were backed by state power. Tsar Alexei, despite his devout religiosity, did not interfere with Nikon in breaking the old church order. According to indirect data, behind the reform, Alexei's aim was to stand at the head of the entire Orthodox world. The Old Believers perceived Alexei as an apostate, which is confirmed by the description given to the tsar by Archpriest Avvakum: “Paternally throw away, love the strange confrontation, pervert.”

For many ordinary people, the rejection of the old rites was experienced as a national and personal catastrophe. It was not clear what turned out to be a bad habitual way, consecrated by time. In 1667, the Solovetsky monks filed a petition to Alexei Mikhailovich, in which there was clear bewilderment: "They teach us a new faith, like Mordovians or Cheremis ... it is not known why." The mood of the people was expressed in the words of Habakkuk: “Satan begged from God for the bright Russia of Satan, even if he will blacken the roof of the martyr.” The Old Believers relied on the opinion of the people, citing an argument in a dispute with the Nikonians: "The voice of the people is the voice of God." In response to this, one of the leaders of the New Believers, Karion Istomin, grinned: “The man is squealing.”

The reform was carried out from an elitist position, shrugging off the folk spirit of Orthodoxy. Nikonians relied on "external wisdom", they represented the essence of the controversy as a conflict between knowledge and ignorance. The Old Believers, on the other hand, tried to prove that the intellect and spirit entered into the conflict. For them, the main thing was moral perfection. Avvakum said that in the moral sense everyone is equal - "from the king to the kennel." The rejection of the old Russian samples of sacred texts in favor of the Greek ones was also associated with elitism, chosenness, which made it difficult for ordinary believers to access the truth. Democracy reigned in pre-Nikonian culture. In Russia, they never appreciated abstract knowledge, seeing in science the path to truth. Correction of ancient Russian books according to foreign standards in the eyes of traditionalists looked like a disregard for "male" culture.

The reform was carried out with the help of violence. Nikon was inclined to be uncompromising and straightforward. He sought to raise the church above secular power and establish in Russia a kind of tsaropapism - only in a national version. Nikon's obstinacy led to strange antics in his behavior: he refused the patriarchate, and then announced his return: "I left the throne without being persecuted by anyone, now I have come to the throne without being called by anyone." Both the tsar and the clergy were tired of Nikon's whims - he was deprived of the patriarchate. But by the time of his abdication, Nikon managed to introduce the spirit of extreme radicalism into the reform. It was carried out by despotic, harsh, rude methods. Old liturgical books were taken away and burned. There were whole fights over books. Lay people and monks secretly took them to the taiga and tundra, avoiding persecution. People said: “According to these books, so many Russians have become righteous and God-pleasers, and now they are considered nothing.” Opposition to the reform manifested itself everywhere: in Vladimir, Nizhny Novgorod, Murom, and so on. From the Solovetsky Monastery, the schism spread throughout the North. The protest against hasty innovations swept many segments of the population. “With fire, yes with a whip, yes with a gallows they want to approve the faith! Avvakum was indignant. - Which Apostles taught so? Don't know! My Christ did not order our Apostles to teach in such a way as to bring them to faith with fire, with a whip, and with a gallows. The essence of the pre-Nikonian understanding of Christianity in Russia was that one cannot force people to believe by force.

Before the split, Russia was spiritually united. The difference in education, in everyday life between the various strata of Russian society was quantitative, not qualitative. The split occurred at that difficult moment when the country faced the problem of developing approaches to cultural ties with Europe. The reform paved the way for the spread of disdain for national customs and forms of organization of life.

The result of the split was a certain confusion in the people's worldview. The Old Believers perceived history as "eternity in the present", i.e. as a stream of time in which everyone has his own clearly marked place and is responsible for everything he has done. The idea of ​​the Last Judgment for the Old Believers had not a mythological, but a deeply moral meaning. For the New Believers, the idea of ​​the Last Judgment ceased to be taken into account in historical forecasts and became the subject of rhetorical exercises. The attitude of the New Believers was less connected with eternity, more with earthly needs. They were emancipated to a certain extent, they accepted the motive of the transience of time, they had more material practicality, a desire to cope with time in order to achieve quick practical results.

In the struggle against the Old Believers, the official church was forced to turn to the state for assistance, willy-nilly taking steps towards subordination to secular power. Alexey Mikhailovich took advantage of this, and his son Peter finally dealt with the independence of the Orthodox Church. Petrovsky absolutism was built on the fact that he freed state power from all religious and moral norms.

The state persecuted the Old Believers. Repressions against them expanded after the death of Alexei, during the reign of Fyodor Alekseevich and Princess Sophia. In 1681, any distribution of ancient books and writings of the Old Believers was prohibited. In 1682, on the orders of Tsar Fedor, the most prominent leader of the schism, Avvakum, was burned. Under Sophia, a law was issued that finally banned any activity of schismatics. They showed exceptional spiritual stamina, responded to repressions with actions of mass self-immolation, when people burned entire clans and communities.

The remaining Old Believers brought a kind of stream into Russian spiritual and cultural thought, did a lot to preserve antiquity. They were more literate than the Nikonians. The Old Believers continued the ancient Russian spiritual tradition, which prescribes a constant search for truth and a tense moral tone. The schism hit this tradition when, after the fall of the prestige of the official church, secular authorities took control of the education system. There has been a change in the main goals of education: instead of a person - a carrier of a higher spiritual principle, they began to train a person who performs a narrow circle of certain functions.

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