Eisenhower biography. Failed peacemaker

Plan
Introduction
1 Biography
1.1 Religion

2 Military career
2.1 First World War
2.2 Military service
2.3 World War II
2.4 Post-war career

3 Presidential career
3.1 Relations with the USSR
3.2 Eisenhower Doctrine
3.3 Foreign policy

4 After presidency
5 Awards
5.1 US honors
5.2 Foreign honors

6 Memory
7 Speeches and performances
Bibliography

Introduction

Dwight David Eisenhower (ur. Dwight David Eisenhower; in the United States, the nickname "Ike" is common. Ike; October 14, 1890, Denison, Texas - March 28, 1969, Washington) - American statesman and military figure, Army General (1944), 34th President of the United States (January 20, 1953 - January 20, 1961).

1. Biography

Dwight Eisenhower was born in Denison, Grayson County, Texas, to David Eisenhower and Ida Strover Eisenhower. In 1891, his parents moved with him to Abilene, Kansas in search of work. Eisenhower graduated high school in 1909 and thereafter attended West Point Military Academy from 1911 to 1915.

1.1. Religion

David, the father of Dwight Eisenhower, came from the family of Hans Nicholas Eisenhower, who immigrated to the United States of America in 1741 from Germany to escape religious persecution. He belonged to the Memonite Protestant sect. Dwight Eisenhower's mother, Ida, was also born and raised in a Christian family, originally part of the Protestant branch of the River Brothers, but later, according to historians, between about 1895 and 1900, moved to an organization that is today known throughout the world under the name "Witnesses Jehovah." Discipline and order always reigned in the Eisenhower house, in the morning and before going to bed the family gathered on the first floor and everyone read a chapter from the Bible.

The Eisenhowers were pacifists, ardent opponents of war, while Dwight aspired to study military affairs. His father brought him books describing the battles of Napoleon, Hannibal and other great generals. When he entered the military academy in 1911, his mother did not utter a word in condemnation of her son's choice of profession, although there had been no military in their family for 400 years. Eisenhower was baptized on February 1, 1953 in the Presbyterian Church. This is the only known case in history when the incumbent president was baptized.

After his resignation, he remained formally a member of the Presbyterian Church in Gothsburg. But the chapel in his presidential library was made inter-religious, that is, not belonging to any religion.

2. Military career

2.1. World War I

On April 6, 1917, the United States declared war on Germany. A few days later, Eisenhower was promoted to captain. From April 1, 1917, he was in Leon Springs, Texas, to prepare the 57th Infantry Regiment for shipment overseas. On September 20, 1917, he was sent as an instructor to an officer training camp at Fort Oglethorn, Georgia. This was followed by a number of appointments to various camps. June 17, 1918, noting the successful activities of Eisenhower in the training of tankers, he was awarded a medal and received the rank of major. Dwight filed report after report with a request to send him to the front, and finally the request was granted, but a few days before sending to Europe, a message arrived about the signing of peace with Germany.

2.2. Military service

He served in the Panama Canal Zone in 1922-1925, which was occupied by the United States. From 1933 to 1935 he worked as Assistant Chief of Staff of the Army, General MacArthur. After that, he served in the Philippines until 1939. From March to December 1941 he was chief of staff of the 3rd Army. After that, he received the rank of colonel, and after that - brigadier general.

2.3. The Second World War

In December 1941, the United States enters World War II. At first, Eisenhower held senior positions in the Department of War and Operations Planning at Army Headquarters, headed by General George Marshall. From November 1942 to October 1943 he commanded the Allied forces in the offensive in North Africa, Sicily and Italy. After the Tehran conference, a second front was opened, and Eisenhower became the Supreme Commander of the Expeditionary Force.

After a successful landing, Eisenhower's adjutant found in his pocket a prepared text of an address in case of defeat: “Our landing in the Cherbourg-Havre region did not lead to the holding of a bridgehead and I withdrew the troops. My decision to attack at this time and place was based on the information I had. The troops, air force and navy did all that courage and devotion to duty could do. If anyone is to blame for the failure of this attempt, it is only me."

In December, Eisenhower was promoted to the rank of General of the Army. Cavalier of the Soviet Order of Victory (1945).

2.4. Post-war career

After the end of the war, Eisenhower maintained friendly relations with Marshal Zhukov. However, towards the end of his military career in 1947, he became a proponent of the Cold War. From September 1950 to June 1952, he commanded the combined armed forces of NATO. An important merit of the president was the organization of the construction of the US Interstate Highway System, which was initiated in 1956 by the adoption of a federal legislative act.

3. Presidential career

After coming to power, Eisenhower ended the Korean War.

The unconditional merit of Eisenhower as president should include the termination of the work of the "Commission to Investigate Un-American Activities", the end of the practice of McCarthyism (persecution for leftist beliefs) and the discrediting of Senator McCarthy himself.

3.1. Relations with the USSR

Eisenhower twice - in 1955 and 1959 - arranged Soviet-American meetings at highest level. However, he was a supporter of the continuation of the Cold War and the arms race.

basis foreign policy was the doctrine of "massive retaliation", which provided for the increase in aircraft with nuclear weapons to enable strikes against the USSR and China. Eisenhower promised to protect the Middle East from the "communist threat."

3.3. Foreign policy

In 1954, an intervention of CIA mercenaries was organized in Guatemala to overthrow the country's president, Jacobo Arbenz, who, according to Eisenhower, paved the way for the establishment of communism and was pro-Soviet. Árbenz was overthrown.

In 1956, the Suez Canal, owned by an English company, was nationalized in Egypt. In response, Britain, France and Israel launched military operations against Egypt. The US and the USSR urged them to stop the aggression. The USSR warned of the possibility of using nuclear weapons against France and Great Britain, after which they retreated.

In 1958, an acute civil conflict broke out in Lebanon. Eisenhower sent 15,000 troops to Lebanon to keep the pro-American government in power.

In 1960, an American U-2 reconnaissance aircraft was shot down near Sverdlovsk. This was the reason for the failure of the meeting with Khrushchev.

4. After the presidency

In 1960, after Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy was elected. After leaving the White House, Eisenhower retired from politics. In May 1968, he suffered his fourth heart attack in 13 years. He was in the Walter Reed Military Hospital in Washington DC and his wife, Mamie, was on duty at his bedside. On March 28, 1969, Eisenhower died - Mamie was there and held his hand. Dwight Eisenhower's granddaughter, Susan, is married to the famous Russian-born physicist Roald Sagdeev.

5. Awards

5.1. US awards

US Army Distinguished Service Medal (10/7/1922) with oak leaves (09/7/1943, 07/13/1945, 08/7/1948, 06/2/1952)

Medal "For Outstanding Naval Merit" (06/25/1947)

Order of the Legion of Honor (11/25/1943)

· Medal of merit in Mexican expeditions (07/09/1918)

· "Medal of Victory in the First World War", (04/09/1918)

"American Defense Medal", (2.04.1947)

Medal "For participation in hostilities in the European, African, Middle Eastern and Middle Eastern theaters", (07/22/1947)

WWII Victory Medal (USA) (04/2/1947)

Army medal "For occupational service in Germany", (04/2/1947)

5.2. Foreign awards

Grand Cross of the Order of the Liberator of General San Martin, Argentina (05/12/1950)

Grand Cross of the Order of Merit, Austria (10/13/1965)

Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Leopold II, Belgium (07/30/1945)

Cross "For the war 1940", Belgium (07/30/1945)

Grand Cross of the Order of Military Merit, Brazil (19.06.1946)

Grand Cross of the Order of Aviation Merit, Brazil (5.08.1946)

Grand Cross of the National Order of the Southern Cross, Brazil (5.08.1946)

Military medal, Brazil (1.07.1946)

European Campaign Medal, Brazil (08/6/1946)

Grand Cross of the Order of Merit, Chile (03/12/1947)

Big Badge of the Special Class "Order of the Cloud and Banner", China (Kuomintang) (09/18/1947)

First class of the "Order of the White Lion", Czechoslovakia (10/11/1945)

First class of the Order of the White Lion "For Victory", Czechoslovakia (10/11/1945)

1939 Military Medal, Czechoslovakia (10/11/1945)

Order of the Elephant, Denmark (12/19/1945)

First class of the Order of the Star of Abdon Calderon, Ecuador (03/30/1949)

Grand order with the star of the Supreme Order of Ismail, Egypt (05/24/1947)

Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath, UK (12.06.1943)

Order of Merit, Great Britain (12.06.1945)

"African Star", Great Britain (11/18/1943)

Grand Cross of the Order of Solomon, Ethiopia (02/14/1948)

The highest degree of the Order of the Queen of Sheba, Ethiopia (05/16/1954)

Knight Grand Cross of the Legion of Honor, France (06/15/1943)

Military Cross, France (19.06.1943)

· Order of Liberation, France (5.09.1945)

Military medal, France (05/21/1952)

Knight Grand Cross of the Order of George I, Greece (07/13/1946)

Royal Order of the Savior, Greece (03/14/1952)

War Merit Cross First Class, Guatemala (30/04/1947)

Grand Cross of the Order of Honor and Merit, Haiti (3.07.1945)

Grand Cross of the Military Order, Italy (5.12.1947)

Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Sovereign Order of Malta (1.04.1952)

The highest order of the Chrysanthemum with a large ribbon, Japan (27.09.1960)

· Knight Grand Cross with the crown of the Order of the Holy Spirit, Luxembourg (3.08.1945)

Military medal, Luxembourg (3.08.1945)

First class of the Order of Military Merit, Mexico (08/17/1946)

Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Aztec Eagle, Mexico (08/15/1946)

· Civil Merit Medal, Mexico (08/15/1946)

Order of the Alaouite Throne, Morocco (9.07.1943)

· Order of Mohammed, Morocco (11/25/1957)

Grand Cross Order of the Netherlands Lion, Netherlands (14.07.1945)

Grand Cross of the Order of St. Olaf, Norway (20.11.1945)

Grand Commander of the Order of St. Olav, Norway (17.04.1946)

"Order of Pakistan", Pakistan (7.12.1957)

Grand Cross of the Order of Vasco Nunez de Balboa, Panama (08/13/1946)

Grand Master of the Order of Manuel Amador Guerrero, Panama (8.06.1956)

Medal "Star of Merit", Philippines (12/12/1939)

Order of Sukatuna, Philippines (16.06.1960)

Commander of the Medal of Honor, Philippines (04/09/1961)

Order of the Rebirth of Poland, Poland (05/18/1945)

First class of the Order "For military valor", Poland (25.09.1944)

First class of the Order of the Cross of Grunwald, Poland (09/07/1945)

Order of the Royal House of Chakri, Thailand (06/28/1960)

Order of Victory, USSR (5.06.1945)

Order of Suvorov 1st degree, USSR (02/19/1944)

Commemorative military cross 1941-1945, Yugoslavia (29.04.1967)

· Coins and postage stamps were issued in memory of Eisenhower.

Eisenhower on the obverse of the $1 coin

Eisenhower on a US postage stamp

Eisenhower on a postage stamp of Kyrgyzstan

7. Speeches and speeches

The Eisenhower Doctrine, 1957.

Farewell Address to the Nation, 1960.

Bibliography:

1. Gettysburg Presbyterian Church

The campaign to invade Nazi-occupied Europe was led by Eisenhower, who served as commander-in-chief of the troops on the European continent. The Normandy operation, which began at sunrise on June 6, 1944, brought success to the general. In 1952, representatives of the Republican Party convinced Eisenhower, who at that time commanded the waxes of the North Atlantic Alliance, to participate in the presidential election. Dwight defeated Adlai Stevenson, a Democrat, by the number of votes, and then re-elected for a second term (1953-1961).

During the reign of Eisenhower, in the face of a real threat of the use of atomic weapons, he established fragile relations with the USSR, ended the war with Korea and authorized a number of secret international operations CIA directed against the communist regime.

At home, in the States, the people enjoyed prosperity, and Eisenhower introduced social programs, created a system of highways and maneuvered behind the scenes to discredit Senator Joseph McCarthy, who expressed anti-communist views. The president, although he had public recognition, slipped on the protection of the rights of African Americans, failing to fully fulfill the mandate of the Supreme Court to merge schools (1954).

Childhood and youth

Eisenhower Dwight was born in Denison, Texas on October 14, 1890. The boy grew up in a poor family, where he became the third of seven sons, in the city of Abilene, Kansas. The biography is silent about the parents of the young man. To the dismay of his mother, a pious Protestant and pacifist, young Ike (as his relatives called him) became a student at the New York military academy at West Point.

The young man planned to go to Europe, but the end of hostilities caused the disappointment of the young officer. But soon he managed to enroll in the command headquarters of the college in Fort Leavenworth (Kansas), as an assistant to John Pershing, who led the American troops during the First World War, and then to Douglas MacArthur, commander of the US Army headquarters. For four years, Eisenhower lived in the Philippine Islands.

Dwight returned to his homeland shortly after the attack of Nazi Germany on Poland, which caused the outbreak of World War II on the European part of the mainland. Eisenhower led the Torch Campaign in the fall of 1942, and also sent troops into the countries of North Africa, and then to the island of Sicily and mainland Italy, which led to the fall of Rome in the summer of 1944.

In 1943, Eisenhower, who had the rank of colonel general, was appointed commander in chief, and in December of that year he initiated the invasion of troops into German-occupied Europe. At sunrise on June 6, 1944, the Allies crossed the strait between Britain and France and stormed the beaches of Normandy. The result of the invasion was the liberation of Paris on August 25, which decided the outcome of the war in Europe. Rising from lieutenant colonel to supreme commander in five years, Eisenhower returned to the US as a hero to serve as Chief of Staff of the US Army.

Political career

In 1948, Dwight left the military and took over as president of Columbia University. A brief return to civilian life in 1950 ended when the President asked Eisenhower to take command of new NATO troops on the European continent. In this position, Eisenhower planned to create a unified military organization that could deal with potential communist aggression around the world.

In 1952, with Truman's popularity waning due to the ongoing war with Korea, Eisenhower ran for president under Republican pressure.

At the party's national caucus in July, Dwight was voted nominated for the first round of the election. Under the slogan "I like Ike", as a Californian aide, Eisenhower defeated Adlai Stevenson to become President of the United States (and re-defeated Stevenson four years later, resulting in a re-election despite health problems after suffering a heart attack). attack).

President of the U.S.A

The years of Eisenhower's rule (01/20/1953-01/20/1961) are characterized by the end of the military mission in Korea, warm relations with Russia and the beginning of the American policy of "governing the world".

Eisenhower's main areas of work:

• Ending persecution for displaying leftist views (especially against McCarthy);
• Construction of highways throughout the country;
• Growth of state monopoly in the economy;
• The Eisenhower Doctrine, which said that every state should count on the help of the US army in the event of an attack by other countries.

Although U.S.-Russian relations remained relatively cordial, including a meeting in 1959, the Soviet shooting of an American U-2 aircraft in the spring of 1960 shattered Eisenhower's hopes for peace.

In his farewell speech in the winter of 1961, Eisenhower spoke of the dangers of the military-industrial complex. Combining the needs of the defense sector with advances in technology, the ex-president warned of a partnership between the military complex and business that threatened to have an undue influence on the course of international politics. However, the warnings fell on deaf ears, despite the Cold War era.

Domestic politics

Despite holding Democratic majorities in Congress during six of his eight years in office, Eisenhower (a moderate Republican) achieved numerous legislative victories. In addition to continuing the New Deal and Fair Deal programs of his predecessors (and Truman, respectively), he strengthened social programs, raised the minimum wage, and created the Department of Health, Education, and Welfare. In 1956, Eisenhower created the Interstate Highway System, building 41,000 miles of roads across the country.

During Eisenhower's first term, the anti-communist policies of Republican Senator Joseph McCarthy violated the civil liberties of citizens, leading to a series of sensational television statements in the spring of 1954. To preserve party unity, Eisenhower refrained from publicly criticizing McCarthy, although he disliked the senator as a person, but worked behind the scenes to reduce McCarthy's influence and ultimately discredit the Republican.

However, Eisenhower is even more hesitant on the issue of civil rights for African Americans. In 1954, in Oliver Brown v. Topeka Board of Education, the US Supreme Court ruled that school segregation was unconstitutional. In Eisenhower's view, desegregation must be slow, and he was reluctant to use the presidency to support the execution of the court's sentence, although he sent federal troops to Little Rock, Arkansas, in 1957 to secure the merger of the high school there. Eisenhower signed civil rights legislation in 1957 and 1960 providing federal protection for black voters, the first such legislation passed in the United States since the Reconstruction of the South.

Foreign policy

Shortly after his inauguration, Eisenhower signed the armistice that ended the Korean War. Apart from sending troops to Lebanon in 1958, the armed forces were no longer deployed outside the US, although the president did not hesitate to authorize defense spending. He authorized the CIA to carry out covert operations against communism in foreign countries, two of which overthrew the rulers of Iran and Guatemala in 1953-1954. In 1954, Eisenhower decided not to allow an air strike to save French troops from defeat in Dien Bien Phu, avoiding a war in the Indochina Peninsula, although such support for the government of South Vietnam, which had an anti-communist regime, provoked US participation in the Vietnam War.

Eisenhower tried to improve relations with the Soviet Union, especially in 1953, after his death. In the summer of 1955, at a meeting with world leaders in Geneva, Switzerland, he proposed an "open skies" policy in which the US and Soviet Union will conduct cross-checks of military programs in the air. The USSR rejected the proposal, despite its international approval. Under the growing threat of Soviet nuclear weapons technology, Eisenhower and Secretary of State John Foster Dulles succeeded in strengthening the North Atlantic Alliance and establishing the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization to combat communist expansion in the region.

Personal life

Having received higher education, Eisenhower met Mamie Geneva Dood in San Antonio, whom he proposed to on February 14, 1916. After the wedding, the couple gave birth to two sons - Dood Dwight (who died of scarlet fever at the age of three) and John.

Dwight's granddaughter Susan married a Russian physicist, symbolically continuing the period of warm relations between his grandfather and the Soviet government, and his grandson married President Nixon's daughter.

Death of Dwight Eisenhower

Eisenhower enjoyed consistently high ratings among voters who could not be swayed by criticism of his regime. Leaving the office in the winter of 1961, he went to Vacation home in Gettysburg, where he worked mainly on a book of memoirs. The President of the United States died on March 28, 1969, after a long illness.

Quotes

• "A diplomat is a person who is paid a lot to think for a long time before saying nothing"
• "The slogan of true democracy is not "Let the government do it" but "Let us do it ourselves"
• "We will achieve peace, even if we have to fight to achieve it"
• "What we call foreign affairs, are no longer. This is now an internal matter ... "

Memory

• It is little known that in Potsdam, in 1945, Eisenhower opposed the cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki. He argued that Japan was already on the verge of surrender, and the first to use such a dangerous new weapon could damage the prestige of the United States in the international arena, which had barely reached its highest point.
• During a meeting between Eisenhower and the American, the Marshal was treated to Coke. Zhukov liked the taste so much that he asked Eisenhower to supply the drink exclusively for Zhukov's headquarters, but the drink should be discolored. The factory employees complied with the request of the Russian marshal and sent 50 cases of the drink to Moscow.

• The opening of the second front brought Eisenhower the Order of Victory.
• Eisenhower wrote a book about the role of the United States in the events of World War II called "Crusade in Europe".
• In memory of the 34th President of the United States, Dwight's profile is carved on a one-dollar coin, a portrait is applied to the postage stamps of Kyrgyzstan and the United States.

DwightEisenhower is an army general.

Dwight David Eisenhower, an outstanding military leader of the Second World War and the 34th President of the United States, was born on October 14, 1890 in the town of Denison, Texas. At the beginning of the XVIII century. his ancestors, members of the Mennonite religious sect, fleeing persecution in their homeland, Germany, moved to North America.

In 1891, the Eisenhower family moved to Kansas and settled in the town of Abelin, where children and youth Dwight. He grew up as an energetic and cocky boy and was one of the best athletes in the city among his peers.

At school, Dwight studied with passion. His favorite subjects were history and mathematics.

The choice of a future profession happened unexpectedly. One of his friends advised Dwight to enter the Naval Academy. After some thought, Eisenhower decided that military service was indeed the most suitable occupation for him. There were no vacancies for admission to the Naval Academy, so Dwight passed the exam in 1910 and became a cadet at the Combined Arms School at West Point.

Eisenhower did not immediately become interested in mastering the military profession. During his years at West Point, Dwight showed himself much more as an athlete than as a diligent student. He achieved the greatest success in American football. For his excellent game, he was nicknamed the "Kansas cyclone", and he was included in the national team of the American army. A serious injury received in one of the games forced Dwight to say goodbye to dreams of sports victories. But Eisenhower retained his love for sports for life and always maintained an excellent physical form. Dwight's academic achievements were much more modest... Having received the rank of lieutenant in the US Army, Eisenhower was sent to Fort Sam Houston, Texas.

Eisenhower's military career until 1940 was not very successful. During all this time, he never managed to get a command position. It seemed that good prospects opened up for Eisenhower after April 6, 1917, when the United States entered the First World War. However, he did not manage to get into the army. The military command believed that his abilities were better used for the training of officers. Then he successfully participated in the creation of the first US tank units, for which he received the rank of major.

After the end of the war, Eisenhower changed several places of service. In 1926, he successfully graduated from the most authoritative military educational institution in the United States at that time - the Command and Training College at Fort Leavenworth. In 1928, Eisenhower graduated from the Army War College in Washington. From 1929 to 1935, he worked in the office of the Secretary of War, and then with Douglas MacArthur, Chief of Staff of the US Army, where he was valued as a good staff worker, but this did not affect his career advancement. Only in 1936 did Eisenhower receive the rank of colonel. After leaving the post of chief of staff of the army, MacArthur was sent to the Philippines to assist in the creation of his own armed forces there. He invited Eisenhower as his assistant. Stay in the Philippines dragged on until 1940.

On September 1, 1939, World War II began. This made Eisenhower consider returning home. Refusing to continue working in the Philippines, even on very favorable terms from a financial point of view, Eisenhower returned to the United States in February 1940.

In the history of the Second World War, Dwight Eisenhower occupies a special and very important place. Under his command, the largest operations of the united troops of the Western countries against Nazi Germany and its allies were successfully carried out. Astounding was the speed with which Eisenhower went from a little-known staff officer to one of the leading generals of World War II. For the first time, he forced the attention of the command during the largest military maneuvers in US history, carried out in 1941. By the decision of President Roosevelt, Eisenhower was awarded the rank of major general. After the US entered the war, he took part in the development of a military concept. Deep knowledge and enormous capacity for work put Eisenhower among the leading US military leaders.

In June 1942, Eisenhower was assigned to England for the post of commander in chief of all US armed forces in the European theater of operations. From now on, his main task was to create a cohesive and combat-ready army from American and British troops that could successfully fight against Germany.

It was very difficult: in addition to the inevitable language and national problems, Eisenhower's position was complicated by his lack of experience in combat operations and low fame in the Allied armies. It required maximum dedication. Eisenhower's first real test of military leadership was Operation Torch in North Africa, where he led the Anglo-American Expeditionary Force against the Italo-German forces. The landing operation of the allies, which began on November 8, 1942, ended in their complete victory by mid-May 1943. The main military operations unfolded in Tunisia. During these battles, military glory came to Eisenhower.

After the end of hostilities in North Africa, the leaders of the United States and Great Britain decided to prepare for the invasion of Sicily. Eisenhower was put in charge of the Mediterranean theater of operations. He always carefully planned combat operations, but never allowed himself to interfere in all the details of the work of his subordinates, believing that everyone himself should be responsible for the decisions made. However, Eisenhower immediately dismissed those who did not justify their trust. The landing operation in Sicily began on July 9, 1943 and ended by the autumn with the complete withdrawal of Italy from the war. During operations in North Africa and Italy, Eisenhower showed talent not only as a military leader, but also as a diplomat, skillfully smoothing out the political differences that arose between the Americans and the British.

Since 1943, Eisenhower has become the commander-in-chief of the Allied forces in Europe. His task was to prepare the Allied invasion of France. This largest amphibious operation in the history of the war was called "Overlord". By this time, Eisenhower's authority in the allied army was enormous. He showed great concern for his subordinates; he checked how the soldiers were fed, was interested in the state of their health, and only then - military equipment. Eisenhower was simple and accessible in communication. On the other hand, he maintained the strictest discipline in the troops and, approving decisions on the verdicts of military tribunals, in cases of especially serious crimes, he did not stop before using public executions.

Operation Overlord began on June 6, 1944. In the event that the invasion ended in failure, Eisenhower left a document that said: "The infantry, air force and navy did everything that courage and commitment to duty command. If you look for those responsible for the failure, then I am guilty one". Fortunately, this "explanatory note" was not needed. Rapidly developing the offensive, the Allied troops liberated Paris on August 25, 1944. characteristic feature Eisenhower as a military commander was his desire to take into account primarily military, rather than political considerations when making decisions. The fact is that although the USSR and the Western allies acted together against Nazi Germany, they perfectly understood that after the end of the war their political interests would be different. Therefore, each of the parties wanted to get ahead of the other in the liberation of the most strategically important countries and territories. Eisenhower is still accused by many in the United States of refusing to storm Berlin and thereby allowing Soviet troops to do so. Meanwhile, Eisenhower was aware that the throw of the troops of the Western Allies to Berlin could lead to defeat, heavy losses. Based on these considerations, he decided that the Soviet army was in a better position to storm Berlin.

After the capitulation of Nazi Germany, Eisenhower was appointed commander in chief of the American occupation forces in Germany, and in June 1945 he returned to the United States. His popularity in the country was unusually great. During Eisenhower's tour of the US, millions of people took to the streets to greet him. Even then, many advised him to go into politics, but at first he refused this path. In June 1948, he became rector of one of the largest universities in the United States - Columbia. However, Eisenhower failed to end his military career.

The Cold War has begun. In April 1949, the US and its allies created NATO. Eisenhower turned out to be the most suitable candidate for the post of commander-in-chief of the armed forces of NATO. He fully shared the goals of NATO and believed that Western countries should create a powerful military-political bloc that would resist the threat of the spread of communist ideology. Staying in Europe as commander of the armed forces of NATO (1950-1952) can be considered the beginning of Eisenhower's political career. The two main parties in the United States, the Democratic and the Republican, in view of Eisenhower's enormous popularity, sought to secure his consent to the nomination for the presidency of the country. Convinced that he would be supported by the majority of voters, Eisenhower finally agreed to participate in the elections as the Republican candidate.

After resigning from his post and resigning from the army, Eisenhower actively led his election campaign. His victory in the 1952 elections was impressive: almost 55% of voters cast their votes for him. Dwight Eisenhower was US President for two terms - from 1953 to 1961. Formulating the concept of his presidency, he said that the country needed a period of calm and unification after the upheavals of World War II. In the field of domestic policy, he pursued a moderate course. On the one hand, he did not expand the social programs that existed in the previous decade, when the country was ruled by Democrats. But on the other hand, he did not allow them to be reduced, as many Republicans wanted. Eisenhower curbed the rapid growth of military spending, realizing the danger of increasing the influence of the military-industrial complex. This was connected with his "new look" at the country's defense policy. Eisenhower said that every gun made, every ship launched, was a steal from those who were hungry and had no clothes.

Related to this approach to defense was Eisenhower's conception of US foreign policy. Since the president insisted on the need to reduce the size of the army, it was necessary to propose a military strategy that would correspond to the task of protecting against a possible attack by the USSR. Such a strategy was developed and received the ominous name "massive retaliation." Its essence boiled down to the fact that the United States does not bind itself with an obligation to resist communism anywhere in the world. The United States can respond to the actions of the USSR in one place in another, where it considers it most appropriate, using nuclear weapons if necessary. "Only strength can help," said Eisenhower, "weakness cannot help, it can only beg for alms." At the same time, he also understood the dangerous consequences of such a line.

In general, in the field of foreign policy, Eisenhower showed great flexibility, skillfully combining open propaganda steps and covert operations. So, in December 1953, he came up with the Atoms for Peace program, which involved the use of nuclear energy for peaceful purposes. On the other hand, Eisenhower actively used the CIA for covert subversive operations against countries where disloyal US governments were in power. The most striking example was the overthrow of the Mossadegh government in Iran in 1953 and the left-wing government of Arbenz in Guatemala in 1954. However, Eisenhower did not allow the United States to be drawn into any new war. Eight years of his presidency, after he brought about an end to the war in Korea, passed without the participation of American troops anywhere in the world.

Relations with the USSR during the Eisenhower presidency developed very unevenly. Periods of some easing of tension were replaced by the threat of the outbreak of war. The greatest progress was achieved during the visit in 1959 to the United States of the head of the Soviet state N. S. Khrushchev. Then for the first time there was a real prospect of reaching an agreement on arms control. An agreement was reached on a new meeting for this purpose between Eisenhower and Khrushchev in Paris. However, two weeks before the meeting, on May 1, 1960, an American U-2 reconnaissance aircraft was shot down over the territory of the USSR. The flights of these aircraft were carried out for several years, but the USSR did not have weapons capable of shooting them down. Eisenhower knew and authorized these flights, being sure that it would not be possible to prove his espionage activities. However, when the plane was shot down, the pilot ejected and told about his mission. After that, Khrushchev refused to meet with Eisenhower.

After leaving the White House, Eisenhower outwardly remained out of politics, although he constantly monitored the situation in the country. He did not approve of the policies of his successors, Presidents Kennedy and Johnson, but considered it necessary to support them in matters that concerned US national security. In 1968, already seriously ill, he turned to the Republican Party with a proposal to nominate Richard Nixon, who was vice president in the Eisenhower administration, as a presidential candidate.

Dwight Eisenhower died on March 28, 1969. He made a great contribution to the victory over Nazi Germany. In many ways, it was thanks to the glory of the brilliant commander that he won the presidential elections in 1952 and 1956. and entered the post-war history of the United States as one of the most popular presidents of the country. There is still lively discussion about Eisenhower's significance as a politician.

Not being a political genius, Dwight Eisenhower solved the main task facing him as President of the United States. During the period of fierce confrontation between the USA and the USSR, he still managed to avoid an armed clash between East and West. Over time, it also became apparent that some of the ideas he expressed in the field of domestic policy and international relations have retained their relevance and are used by many US politicians to this day.

Dwight David Eisenhower - 34th President of the United States- born October 14, 1890 in Denison (Texas), died March 28, 1969 in Washington, DC. President of the United States from January 20, 1953 to January 20, 1961.

There Dwight D. Eisenhower spent his childhood and youth. Although his father was able to improve the situation in subsequent years, Eisenhower still knew the shadow side of life here. While studying at school, he stood out mainly as a football player. Later he worked at a dairy plant and supported his older brother Edgar, who was studying at the university. A friend told him about the possibility of free admission to the military academy at West Point. The father did not object to the desire to start a military career, but it was much more difficult to get the consent of the mother, a convinced pacifist.

Eisenhower's academic career at West Point was nothing particularly noteworthy. He graduated 65th in a group of 170 from the academy. Upon graduation, he was sent to Texas, where in the fall of 1915 he met Mary Jeneva Dowd (Mami), whom he married in July of the following year. He did not actively participate in the First World War, although he was very eager to do so. His attempt to get to the front with the help of specialization in new tank weapons failed. The bosses appreciated his organizational skills, his work as a football coach, his skillful dealing with the bureaucracy and convincing tactical research on the development of tank weapons. Publications in which he criticized the prevailing military doctrine, which provides for tanks only as support for the infantry, led to the threat of initiating a trial by a military tribunal, to which Eisenhower limited himself to demobilization tasks.

The period between the wars brought Eisenhower a number of military trips abroad: to Panama (1922 - 1924), to Paris as a member of the commission on military monuments (1928 - 1929) and to the Philippines (1936 - 1939). To this were added courses at the General Staff Academy at Fort Leavenworth, which he graduated as the best in the class, a stay at the military college in Washington, in the diplomatic corps, as well as an assignment to the military department, where he met military bureaucracy. During the global economic crisis, he, along with fellow officers, developed a plan for the "industrial mobilization" of the United States. In the early years of Roosevelt's presidency, New Deal Eisenhower was involved in organizing a labor service for youth.

By the start of World War II, the relatively inexperienced combatant Eisenhower had become an officer on the staff of General George Marshall, Chief of the General Staff. He made plans for the defense of South Asia and the Philippines against the advancing Japanese and participated under the command of General Douglas MacArthur in organizing the last unsuccessful defense of the Philippines. After a temporary retreat from South Asia, the main American interest turned first to Europe. As Chief of Operations of the General Staff, Eisenhower was responsible for strategic planning, the psychological and economic conduct of the war, the provision of equipment, and diplomatic coordination with the State Department. Marshall, like Eisenhower, advocated the early opening of a "second front" against Nazi Germany in order to free the Soviet Union from heavy German pressure. They considered the British amphibious landing strategy in North Africa to be useless and a waste of resources. Eisenhower worked out at this time all the American plans of action and was appointed by General Marshall as commander-in-chief of the European front. The British military accepted his appointment also because they thought it was relatively easy to influence him.

After arriving in England on June 24, 1942, Eisenhower's first task was to improve cooperation between the British and American military and prepare for the landings in France. He advocated a frontal attack across the canal, but meanwhile Winston Churchill persuaded President Roosevelt to march into North Africa and land in Sicily. Only on June 6, 1944, Operation Overlord began, the Allied landing in Normandy. A week later, Eisenhower set foot on French soil, and at the end of the war, Ike, who, as an unknown person, took command, was one of the most popular Americans. Roosevelt was gone. Churchill was soon to be succeeded by Clement Attlee, and Harry S. Truman had yet to prove himself as president. Eisenhower, as a folk hero, embodied the political and military superiority of Western democracy.

At the end of the war and until November 1945, Eisenhower was the military governor of the American Zone in Germany. Despite his growing distrust of the Soviet Union, he hoped to continue the Soviet-American cooperation he had begun in Berlin with Marshal Zhukov. In the summer of 1945, Eisenhower spoke out against the use of atomic weapons in Japan, as he feared that such a show of force could damage relations with the Soviet Union. At the same time, he was against the Morgenthau plan developed in 1944, which provided for the deindustrialization of Germany. He considered the restoration of the Ruhr area as the most important prerequisite for the economic recovery of Europe.

From late 1945 to February 1948, he was General Marshall's successor Chief of Staff of the Army. In this function, he achieved universal active service and promoted the unification of military units under civilian control. But he did not take part in major decisions about the military budget, about the military power of Greece and Turkey, or about the international control of atomic energy. Although he was ideologically rather moderate, he gradually turned to the anti-communist line, which was followed by President Truman. On the other hand, he did not believe that a military danger really emanated from the Soviet Union.

When Eisenhower retired from the army in 1948, he received many offers for his new job. Thomas Watson, chairman of the board of International Business Machines (IBM) and trustee of the university in Columbia, managed to persuade him to become president of the university, a post he held from June 1948 to October 1950. But he almost did not interfere in academic affairs, and devoted himself mainly to the auto-biographical book about the Second World War "Crusade in Europe".

It was characteristic of Eisenhower that he did not even tell his close friends which party he was in. Both political camps, both Democrats and Republicans, assumed that he was closer to them. President Truman, fearing for his re-election in 1948, offered Eisenhower, known as the representative of an active foreign policy, the post of vice president. Like Truman, Eisenhower unconditionally approved of the Marshall Plan. He was convinced that the United States, in its own interest, should contribute to the restoration of Europe and European integration. But he rejected Truman's offer, as he considered it unworthy to bargain for support at party conventions. As a professional soldier, Eisenhower was accustomed to keeping aloof from political conflicts.

He did not hesitate to accept President Truman's offer at the end of 1949 to become Commander-in-Chief of the armed forces of the newly formed NATO. For Eisenhower, NATO was not only a military alliance, he saw in it, first of all, a political community of the values ​​of Western democracy. Activities at headquarters in Paris reinforced his conviction that the United States should create a shield against the Soviet Union with its presence in Europe until the Europeans were able to defend themselves. Favored by the right wing of the Republican Party, and especially by Senator Robert Taft, the isolationist concept of "America's fortress" was simply nonsense. The withdrawal of US troops from Europe was supposed to destroy the system of collective security, of which Eisenhower was a staunch adherent. These thoughts influenced him so much that he finally announced his willingness to be the Republican candidate for president in 1952. He feared that Taft's nomination might harm US national interests. A special role in the consent of Eisenhower to participate in the election was played by Republican Senator Henry Cabot Lodge Jr., who convinced him that the population would respond positively to his candidacy tour. John Foster Dulles apparently had a similar influence, whose foreign policy analysis coincided with that of Eisenhower. General Lucius D. Clay, his political adviser during the war and successor as military governor in Germany, also played an important role in this context. Since Truman did not run for another term, Eisenhower did not have to fight against the president, who was still in office, which would be clearly inconvenient for Eisenhower.

During Eisenhower's activities in Europe, public criticism of President Tru-man increased significantly. The protracted war with heavy losses in Korea (1950 - 1953) and the increase in the length of service, the confrontation with China, where the Communists ruled since the victory of Mao Tse-tung in 1949, as well as the fear of exchanges of atomic strikes with the Soviet Union instilled population uncertainty. In addition, a campaign of harassment unparalleled in American history was launched by conservative Senator Joseph McCarthy, who tried to represent the government, Democratic Party and most of the intellectual elite under communist influence.

After leaving the post of commander-in-chief of the armed forces of NATO, Eisenhower led the 1952 election campaign on the topics of Korea, defense against communism and the fight against government corruption, without personally attacking the president. In addition, he criticized the decline in the importance of individual states, in whose vitality he saw the guarantee of American democracy. More important than all the arguments was the military glory and popularity of the candidate, familiarly and intimately called "Hayk". Eisenhower was not a particularly religious man, but he deeply felt the moral values ​​of the American middle class and felt himself to be a responsible "servant" of the nation. With the promise of being president of all Americans, he entered the election campaign. Defeated Democratic nominee Adlai E. Stevenson with 21.5 million of 39 million votes cast. After 20 years, the Republican President re-entered the White House, and at the same time the Republicans achieved a majority in both houses of Congress.

In an office at his personal headquarters, Eisenhower gathered a group of former military personnel, university-educated people and business people. The government was for him a great organization, which must be managed in the same way as a modern industrial enterprise, and even better - as general staff. He was not at all a dependent, passive figure, as the public had long perceived him to be, but rather a president who controlled events with a "hidden hand" behind the scenes. He expected his advisers and ministers to present proposals prepared for approval and in the most concise form, which drove even professors at Columbia University to despair. This form of search for a solution is particularly evident in foreign policy. Eisenhower solidified the importance of the National Security Council (NSC), which met almost weekly and discussed all issues of foreign and security policy. The last decision was always in his hands.

Eisenhower referred to the principal ideas of his program as "Modern Republicanism" or "Dynamic Conservatism". This included, first of all, the withdrawal of the state hand from the economy. War-conditioned state quota in the gross domestic product since 1940 has risen from 23 to 93%. The campaign slogan "It's time for a change" signaled a reversal of this trend. This was not fully achieved, but when Eisenhower left office in 1961, the share of government spending did not rise. At the same time, the share of federal expenditures in the total expenditures of the state decreased from 76 to 60%.

The second main goal of economic policy was the development of free competition. To his domestic political opponents, Eisenhower was considered a close confidant of industry. In fact, he advocated aggravation of antitrust legislation, abolished wage and price controls introduced under the influence of the Second World War and the Korean War, and dissolved various executive economic bodies. Eisenhower's economic policy rested, ultimately, on the concept of creating a favorable state framework for individual economic activity. By this he meant the containment of inflation, uniform economic growth, and the protection of the individual and family from economic risk in an urbanized, industrialized world. For Eisenhower, there was at the same time a close connection between fiscal responsibility and the development of democracy. He was convinced that military spending should be limited so that the population would not suffer under the heavy burden of taxes. This consideration contributed to the development of a new military strategy "New Look", which was primarily based on the use of "cheap" atomic weapons. The threat of "massive retaliation" should have already deterred any conceivable Soviet aggression from the very beginning.

Eisenhower transferred his worldview, based on moral principles, to foreign policy. He increasingly understood the conflict between East and West as an insurmountable contradiction between the immoral communist dictatorship represented by the Soviet Union and China, and the fundamental free Western democracy. Eisenhower saw the Soviet leaders as power-obsessed ideologues who would stop at subversion, corruption, bribery, and the threat of force to achieve their goals. He compared relations with the Soviet Union with relations with Hitler's Germany. Only a strong coalition of Western democracies can clearly show the Soviets the futility of their plans for world domination. Although Eisenhower represented an uncompromising policy of intimidation, at the same time he was still interested in easing conflicts with the Soviet Union. His call for the peaceful uses of nuclear energy, which led in 1957 to the creation of international atomic energy bodies, and the "open skies" proposal for mutual control of airspace, which he made at the Geneva Summit Conference in 1955, must be seen, regardless of the propaganda aspect, as an honest effort through credibility-building measures to help defuse the confrontation between the two superpowers in the atomic age. The zenith of this policy was the Geneva Summit Conference in 1954-1955. While the issue of Indo-China was settled only superficially, the Western powers with the Soviet Union came to a mutual solution of the question of the political future of Austria. The state treaty of June 24, 1955 ended the occupation by the allied forces, ensured the ordering of the market economy for Austria and guaranteed the political neutrality of the Alpine republic.

With Eisenhower in office, there was little change in American policy towards Europe, despite the aggressive rhetoric of the new Foreign Secretary, John Foster Dulles, who painted relations between East and West in intense black and white. Neither Eisenhower nor Dulles thought of militarily "liberating" the oppressed peoples of Eastern Europe, even if they spoke of "rolling back" Soviet influence in Eastern Europe. Like his predecessor, Truman, Eisenhower was convinced that bloc détente negotiations with the Soviet Union could be successful only after the strengthening of Western Europe. For him, Europe remained the core of US global security policy, and therefore he objected to the policy of the "old guard" of the Republicans, more oriented towards Asia. The accession of the Federal Republic of Germany to the West within the framework of the European Economic Community (EEC) henceforth had the highest priority. Against this background, it becomes clear why Eisenhower, after the failure of the EEC treaty in the French Parliament (August 30, 1954), began to force the admission of the Federal Republic of Germany into NATO.

Eisenhower proceeded from the fact that Moscow would use the nationalism of the peoples of the "Third World" for its own purposes. In this, Great Britain and France, who did not want to lose their colonies, took, in his opinion, a significant part. The President and his most important adviser, Foreign Secretary Dulles, were convinced that the United States had a moral obligation to help dependent peoples in their conflicts with the colonial powers. Such fundamental considerations, however, were not so easy to apply in political practice. Thus, Eisenhower orchestrated the 1953 intervention in Iran against the nationalist Prime Minister Mosaddegh, who wanted to nationalize Western oil companies, and helped bring the pro-Western Shah Reza Pahlavi to power. Eisenhower was sympathetic to the aspirations of the French colonies in Southeast Asia for independence, but he understood that nationalism in Indochina had become an instrument of the communist movement. The real difficulty was, in his opinion, the dual task of "defeating communism in this region and giving freedom to the local population." Eisenhower tried to persuade French politicians in the need to strengthen the local bourgeois forces and in leaving Indochina. On the one hand, until 1954 his government bore 80% of the financial burden of the French war, on the other hand, Eisenhower was not going to involve the United States itself in the war. He rejected the use of American air power even when the French troops were surrounded by Viet Minh formations at Dien Bien Phu. He feared that US intervention would give the peoples of Asia the impression that French colonialism would be replaced by American colonialism. In the surrender of the French armed forces at Dien Bien Phu on May 7, 1954, Eisenhower saw no immediate threat to American security. To prevent a domino effect in Southeast Asia, in his opinion, a regional defense alliance is enough, as was done with the Southeast Asia Treaty Organization (SEATO). The USA left a military representation at its strongholds in the Pacific Ocean, but the Asian peoples, with the exception of a greatly disarmed Japan, had to bear the main load of their defense themselves.

1956 - the year of elections, was marked by dramatic events. In October, Eisenhower forced Great Britain, France and Israel to withdraw their troops from the Suez Canal after the three states, without an agreement with the United States, opposed Egyptian President Nasser. Although Eisenhower strongly opposed the nationalization of the Suez Canal by Nasser, he was nevertheless deeply angry with the willful actions of the European powers. He exerted massive economic and monetary pressure on Great Britain to bring about an end to the conflict and the liberation of Egypt. Thus, he consolidated the fall of the European colonial powers, which completely gave way to the forefront of the "superpower" of the United States. However, Eisenhower soon saw the need to fill the power vacuum created by the retreat of the Europeans.

While the Eisenhower administration was active in the Middle East and won sympathy around the world for its clear stance towards the colonial powers, passive observation of the Soviet suppression of the 1956 uprising in Hungary showed, at least rhetorically, militant co- maintenance of American foreign policy. Eisenhower's primacy in keeping the peace, as well as the simple and memorable slogan "I love Ike", contributed to the November 1956 election avalanche victory over Democratic rival Adlai Stevenson. How much of this was a personal, and not a party-political triumph, is clear from the fact that the Republicans failed to achieve a majority in either the House of Representatives or the Senate. Eisenhower was at the height of his popularity.

In foreign policy, the president continued the course begun in the first term of the presidency. With the Middle East in mind, in March 1957, he brought through Congress and issued a resolution, the so-called "Eisenhower Doctrine", which allowed him to rush to the aid in economic and military terms of every nation that asked for support against the armed aggression of a country that was controlled by "international communism". Based on this authority, in 1958 he temporarily sent American naval units to Lebanon to prevent the destabilization of the Middle East, which was of vital interest to the security and economic well-being of the United States, and even more of Western Europe. The show of force could not deceive that the last years of the Eisenhower presidency had no real concept in foreign policy. The dynamic policy of Khrushchev, who used his visit to the United States in September 1959 with extraordinary propaganda success, was met by Eisenhower with a non-binding, benevolent expression of goodwill. After a U-2 reconnaissance aircraft was shot down over Soviet territory in May 1960, Khrushchev insulted the president at the Geneva summit conference on May 16-17, 1960, by withdrawing Eisenhower's invitation for a state visit.

Domestic political problems stemmed from the fact that the Democrats again won in Congress in seats and influence since 1954, but also, to a greater extent, from the struggle between the "wings" in the Republican Party. The president and his congressional supporters, the so-called "Eisenhower Republicans," were sometimes able to work better with Democratic Majority Leader Lyndon B. Johnson than with the "old guard" Republicans. Both in road planning and in the use of national minerals or the development of new irrigation projects, there have been significant differences of opinion. While the president saw these projects as legitimate tasks for the federal government, conservative Republicans argued that such proposals would strengthen, not diminish, federal government power. When Hawaii and Alaska were accepted into the union as the 49th and 50th states, there were also discrepancies. Eisenhower advocated the admission of Hawaii, but unlike the majority in Congress, he believed that Alaska mattered mainly from a military-strategic point of view. Therefore, he preferred the federal government of Alaska to the formation of the state. This conflict delayed the admission of both territories into the union for many years before it was finally implemented in 1959. Gradually, Eisenhower was able to put an end to the domestic political hunt for the Communists. When Senator Joseph McCarthy, with his slanderous attacks, did not stop even before members of the Cabinet, the President, with the help of his supporters in the Senate, ensured that McCarthy was publicly condemned and politically isolated. In addition, in 1954, Eisenhower appointed Chief Federal Judge Earl Warren, whose liberal policies were strongly opposed to discrimination and intolerance. In Brown v. Board of Education's judgment on May 17, 1954, the Supreme Court declared racial division in schools unconstitutional and a year later called on states to abolish racially segregated schools. These decisions have caused a wave of protests in the south of the United States. In 1956, more than 100 members of Congress signed the so-called "Southern Manifesto", which accused the Supreme Court of unacceptable interference with the rights of individual states. The conflict culminated in September-September 1957 in Arkansas, where Governor Orville Faubes used the National Guard to forcefully stop black students from attending the hitherto white-only Central High School in Little Rocks. To maintain the credibility of the court, Eisenhower, who privately considered Warren's appointment "the biggest damned mistake I've ever made," was forced to act. For the first time since the Reconstruction after the Civil War, federal troops were sent to the South to protect the black population, which ensured that students could attend school unhindered for the rest of the year. Although African Americans made up less than 1% of all students in mixed schools before 1960, the Brown conviction became a pointer in the direction of the movement for civil rights in recent years.

After leaving the presidency until his death on March 28, 1968, Eisenhower was no longer involved in politics, but wrote two volumes of memoirs. He must have realized that the last years of his presidency were characterized by stagnation, for in his farewell address to the American people in January 1961, he reminded of the dangers of a super-powerful "military-industrial complex" that had to be fought. Large expenditures on armaments and the space program, combined with economic stagnation, placed a heavy burden on the federal budget and citizens. As in the election campaign of 1952, he recalled the close connection between a prosperous economy and a strong democracy.

Eisenhower was a symbolic figure of the fifties. He embodied leadership and reliability, welfare society and American power. However, his legacy was twofold: a powerful and wealthy America, which could no longer cope with many foreign and domestic political problems. In military-strategic terms, the Soviet Union seemed to have reached a "stalemate", and in Asia, Africa and Latin America, anti-American tendencies gained more influence. In the United States, feminist groups and civil rights activists put forward demands for social equality and a fair division of the American welfare. The huge economic recovery by the beginning of the fifties turned into an economic recession, and cultural life threatened to freeze in conventions. The complacent 1950s were followed by a crisis-ridden decade in which Eisenhower was almost forgotten. Only gradually did the Americans begin to realize again his indisputable foreign and domestic political merits.

In preparing the material, an article by Hermann-Josef Rupiper "The War Hero and the President" was used.

Dwight David Eisenhower(English) Dwight David Eisenhower; in the United States, the nickname " Ike", English. Ike; October 14, Denison, Texas - March 28, Washington) - American statesman and military figure, Army General (), 34th President of the United States (January 20 - January 20).

Biography

Dwight Eisenhower was born in Denison, Grayson County, Texas, to David Eisenhower and Ida Strover Eisenhower. In 1891, his parents moved with him to Abilene, Kansas in search of work. Eisenhower graduated from high school in 1909 and thereafter attended West Point Military Academy from 1915 to 1915.

Dwight Eisenhower, although he was an amateur and did not specifically study with anyone, drew quite well. In full, his talent was revealed in his works, which he began to paint after the war. Eisenhower studied the activities of Abraham Lincoln with great enthusiasm, often quoted him in his speeches and even painted his portrait. Often, Eisenhower painted portraits of the employees of his apparatus from photographs and gave them as a reward for good work.

Religion

David, the father of Dwight Eisenhower, came from the family of Hans Nikolaus Eisenhower, who immigrated to the United States of America in 1741 from Germany, fleeing religious persecution. He belonged to the Protestant Mennonite community. Dwight Eisenhower's mother, Ida, was also born and raised in a Christian family, which at first belonged to one of the Mennonite streams of the River Brothers, but later, according to historians, between about 1895 and 1900, moved to the Watchtower organization, now known around the world as Jehovah's Witnesses. Discipline and order always reigned in the Eisenhower house, in the morning and before going to bed the family gathered on the ground floor and each read a chapter from the Bible.

He led the Anglo-American forces during the Normandy landings on June 6, 1944.

In December, Eisenhower was promoted to the rank of General of the Army. Cavalier of the Soviet Order of Victory (1945).

After the end of the war, Eisenhower maintained friendly relations with Marshal Zhukov.

After leaving with military service, by a special decision of the highest authorities, Eisenhower retained the rank of army general for life with a salary of 20 thousand dollars a year.

NATO

December 18, 1950, during a working trip, took place telephone conversation Eisenhower and President Truman, who was looking for him, who announced the unanimous opinion of the leaders of NATO member countries on the appointment of Eisenhower as the head of this structure. On January 7, 1951, Eisenhower arrived at the Astoria Hotel in Paris to head the NATO land, sea and air forces. As Deputy Commander-in-Chief of NATO Forces, Eisenhower brought in Field Marshal Montgomery. In his memoirs, Eisenhower categorically stated: “I believed in the concept of NATO. In my opinion, the future of Western civilization depended on its successful implementation.

After the creation of atomic weapons in the USSR, he stated: “From now on, for the first time in their history, Americans are forced to live under the threat of complete annihilation,” thereby contributing to the formation of the concept of “Soviet threat” in the understanding of American public opinion. At the same time, there are no statements and confidence in the attack of the USSR on the USA, neither in the letters of Eisenhower himself, nor in the memoirs of his brother Milton Eisenhower, who spoke unambiguously: “Never in my life have I heard Eisenhower express an opinion or fear that the USSR will attack the United States of America. And I think that such fears could not be.

Post-war career

From November 1945 to February 1947 he served as Chief of Staff of the Army.

In June 1947, he became president of Columbia University, but in whose post he was the organizer of the American Assembly, a project related to the study of problems of national importance that the vast majority of Americans faced. Due to the fact that Columbia University is located close to the Negro Harlem district of New York, in which there was a high risk for a white to get into a life-threatening situation, Eisenhower had to take a pistol with him when visiting the university district.

Having honorary degrees and titles from many universities in the world, Eisenhower was well aware that he received high academic regalia not for his contribution to the development of science, but as a tribute to his military merits during World War II. Therefore, despite the fact that it was unpleasant for him to hear the opinion of a number of representatives of the academic elite, who believed that educational institutions of this category should be headed by scientists, and not by generals, at the very first meeting with professors, he declared that he did not claim to be a scientist and would rely on to her enlightened opinion. Carrying out his work as president of the university, Eisenhower's working day reached 15 hours a day, while the entrance to his office was free at any time. Hayk actively and successfully resolved issues by interacting with the board of trustees of the university, on which the funding of the university depended.

In 1948, the first edition of Eisenhower's memoirs, Crusade to Europe, was published, which received a great response and brought the author $476,250 in net income (the IRS gave the American hero large tax breaks given the fact that Eisenhower was not a professional writer). By the end of 1966, over 1.7 million copies of the book had been sold, which had by then been translated into 22 languages.

Presidential career

President Eisenhower in the Oval Office of the White House

Eisenhower's unconditional merit as president should include the termination of the work of the "Commission to Investigate Un-American Activities", the end of the practice of McCarthyism (persecution for leftist beliefs) and the discrediting of Senator McCarthy himself.

An important merit of the president was the organization of the construction of the US Interstate Highway System, which was initiated in 1956 by the adoption of a federal legislative act.

Domestic politics

The connection between domestic and foreign policy of the United States in the 1950s was manifested so clearly that in one of his speeches Eisenhower said: "Measures of a domestic nature and relations in the international arena are so closely connected that in many cases they are inseparable." At the same time, Eisenhower did not overestimate his capabilities either in politics or in economics. “I never studied politics,” Eisenhower admitted. “I came into it from the side to the very top.” The president was even more explicit about his background in economics: "I'm a country boy and I don't understand much about economics."

Economy

Following the classical doctrine of republicanism, Eisenhower believed that federal government must incur minimal costs in solving problems of social security, which is the concern of trade unions, local authorities and, above all, of the workers themselves. These views reflected the credo of the leadership of the Republican Party as a party of big business. Eisenhower repeatedly stated that the state should not interfere in the economy, appealing to the authority of Lincoln, who argued "the state should only do what the citizens themselves cannot do in the best way."

Socio-economic development during the years of Eisenhower's presidency was characterized by the rapid growth of state-monopoly capitalism. Truman's 20-year Republican rule and presidency left a "legacy" of a $9.4 billion deficit, which was reduced only by 1956-1957. Eisenhower failed to fulfill his commitment to cut military spending by $20 billion because the uncontrolled arms race created a trade deficit, stimulated inflation, and weakened the country's economic and military power. For this, he was sharply criticized by representatives of the military-industrial complex, who claimed that the president was undermining the foundations of the country's military power. Eisenhower's vigorous efforts to fight inflation were met with hostility by the Democratic majority in Congress, which proposed anti-inflationary measures that were diametrically opposed. The war in Korea was a certain stimulus for the development of the military-industrial sector and contributed to some absorption of unemployment, which somewhat alleviated the crisis of 1948-1949. However, the United States again suffered economic crises, 1953-1954, 1957-1958 and 1960-1961. The US share in the industrial production of the capitalist world fell in 1960 to 45.4%, compared with 53.4% ​​in 1948. In 1953, there were 1.9 million completely unemployed in the United States: in 1959 this figure was already 3.8 million. A significant reason for the surge in unemployment was the automation of production, which increased the profits of monopolists and promoted the concentration of industry on a huge scale. In 1956, American corporate profits topped $43 billion, nearly double the most favorable war year for the monopolies. The peak of unemployment was reached in the spring of 1958 and exceeded 6 million - more than 5.7% of the total active population of the United States.

The actions of Eisenhower himself in the field of solving the most difficult problems of the American economy in the 1950s were more than modest. The President could not be denied that he, with his characteristic activity, tried to find a solution to these problems by putting talented and energetic people in leadership positions, but he was largely shackled by the principles of party affiliation and the interests of monopolistic circles with strong influence in the Republican Party.

The President made personal efforts to break the historical and deeply rooted tradition of appointing to lucrative positions for friendly reasons. In 1953, at the very first meeting of the government, he said: "If anyone applies for a position, referring to the fact that he is my friend, throw him out of the office."

During Eisenhower's presidency, the US had a surplus and a steady trade surplus, but an aggressive foreign policy of "liberation" and brinkmanship devoured virtually all income.

The generals and representatives of the military-industrial complex believed that the era of uncontrolled spending of budgetary funds for military needs had finally come, Eisenhower was under enormous pressure, calling for his "military solidarity." To contain this pressure, Eisenhower had to use the full force of his authority.

Eisenhower was one of the few US politicians who understood that the United States is not omnipotent and is not allowed to do everything. "Just as Eisenhower was the last US President to recognize that Congress had the right to decide whether to declare war, he was also the last President to recognize that even the United States has limited options."

Having considered comprehensively the economic aspects of US military policy, in his first message to Congress, Eisenhower concluded: “The problem is to achieve the necessary military power without allowing the economy to be overstretched. to build up military power without taking into account economic opportunities means to defend against one scourge, causing another.

Eisenhower was consistently anti-communist. On August 24, a law was signed on the control of communist activities, which explicitly stated that the Communist Party would deprive the Communist Party of "any rights, privileges and immunities inherent in organizations created on the basis of US laws." Many progressive-minded individuals became victims of reactionary politics. The case of the Rosenberg spouses received a great response.

Eisenhower repeatedly declared the identity of the interests of the worker and the employer, the worker and the monopolist, without even stopping to remind American workers that he, too, was a worker in his youth. But in practice, the Eisenhower administration took the side of the monopolies, which in the eyes of the government turned out to be representatives of the interests of society and the state, and the workers were exposed as rebels defending only their own personal interests.

Racial segregation

Black Americans were convinced that the defeat of fascism was in the vital interests of African Americans and enthusiastically joined the American armed forces. On August 1, 1945, there were 1,030,265 black military personnel in all branches of the military, which was approximately 9% of the personnel of the US military. However, about 90% of them were used in all kinds of hard work and only about 10% in combat units. By the end of the war, there were 7,768 black officers in the army, which was less than 1% of black military personnel, against 11% among white military personnel, and most did not rise through the ranks above the rank of lieutenant. Only one black held the rank of brigadier general (out of 776 US Army generals). Of the 5,220 colonels, only seven were African American. As a result of the most severe racial segregation of African Americans in the army, independent military units were gradually formed up to regiments and divisions. In the Navy, segregation was somewhat weakened only by the summer of 1944, when several hundred black Americans were enrolled on warships, but even at the end of the war, 95% of black sailors worked in the kitchen, served canteens, wardrooms, were employed in ancillary work.

Many black participants in the war received orders and medals, but, characteristically, not one of them was awarded the Medal of Honor, despite the fact that 21 black citizens received this award during the Civil War, and 7 during the Spanish-American War. Particularly severe segregation was subjected to Blacks in the Southern States: In March 1943, a black sergeant was killed by a policeman on a street in Little Rock, Arkansas. That same year, in Gentreville, Mississippi, on Memorial Day, a black soldier was shot and killed by a sheriff on the street.

The intolerable facts of racial segregation and discrimination against American military personnel led to the issuance of an order on May 12, 1944 by the Commander-in-Chief of the Allied Armed Forces, General Eisenhower, "on equality of opportunity and rights in relation to the service and rest of every American soldier, regardless of rank, race, color and religion." However, expressing the position of the generals, on June 5, 1948, Eisenhower insisted on a policy of isolating blacks in the army, arguing that a "total merger" would harm their interests.

At the same time, in the speeches of activists participating in the movements for the elimination of racial discrimination, the question was raised that racial persecution is a disgrace to America and, in essence, is no different from the theory and practice of fascism. Especially intolerant was the Negro military youth, who received a baptism of fire on the fronts of the Second World War fighting against fascism, which is racism in its purest form.

As part of the protection of civil rights, in 1957, with the help of military force, he defended the civil rights of blacks in the South

That same year, the US Congress passed the first federal law on voting rights for blacks since the 1860s ( English).

Foreign policy

In contrast to the strong isolationist sentiments of the Republicans, in particular Robert Taft ( English), the essence of which was that the United States should not bind itself with far-reaching international agreements, Eisenhower was convinced that after the Second World War the hour for American "leading the world" had struck. In a speech to students at Columbia University in 1950, Eisenhower declared: “The United States of America has the mission of leading the world. Your generation has a wonderful opportunity to contribute to making this manual a moral, intellectual, and material model for all time.”

The US foreign policy during the Eisenhower presidency, which took the form of "internationalization", was based on the maximum use of the efforts of US allies in solving the cardinal problems of world foreign policy.

The basis of foreign policy was the doctrine of "massive retaliation", which provided for an increase in aviation with nuclear weapons in order to make it possible to strike at the USSR and the PRC.

After the collapse of the Suez adventure caused by the triple aggression of Israel and NATO partners Great Britain and France, and the subsequent evacuation of Anglo-French troops from Egypt, the United States announced that they were called upon to fill the vacuum created by the loss of positions in the Middle East by partners, which Eisenhower promised to protect from the "communist threat". On March 9, the US Congress passed a corresponding law that gave the president the right, under the pretext of protecting the independent countries of the Middle East, to use the combined "armed forces to assist any country or group of countries in need of it against armed aggression by any country controlled by communism", which actually laid the foundation for the so-called "Eisenhower Doctrine". The consequence of this doctrine was the complication of international relations between the US and the USSR as part of the aggression of the US, Israel, Iraq and Turkey against Syria in 1957 and the Anglo (in Jordan)-American (in Lebanon) aggression against Iraq, which overthrew the monarchical regime and withdrew from the Baghdad Pact. in July 1958.

US policy in Europe

January 26, 1951, speaking at a session of the NATO Council, Eisenhower said that the United States needed military positions, echeloned in depth. Consequently, they need the help of West Germany, both geographically and militarily. Dulles fully and completely supported these ideas, claiming the role of "a pioneer, attaching particular importance to the growth of the economic, political and military unity of Europe." Dulles put forward the idea of ​​using West Germany as the main strike force of the pro-American military-political bloc being forged in Europe: “The current administration has fully accepted retroactively to leadership my thesis that strength can be achieved only through unity and only strength in Western Europe will create the necessary conditions, which will allow to revive the power of West Germany, preventing her from dominating the region.

On July 9, 1948, the US ambassador in London wrote to Dulles: "The London agreements on Germany are a difficult matter, in particular because we are all fully aware of the risk to which we are exposed, and the responsible nature of the decisions that we are trying to implement." The letter said that the policy of the United States and England in the German question creates serious problems for the "inclusion of France<в политику перевооружения Германии>, whose role is so important in the implementation of all the programs of reconstruction and reorganization of Western Europe. The gloomy predictions were confirmed by the decision of the French National Assembly on August 30, 1954, to refuse to ratify the treaty establishing the European Defense Community. For the United States, there was a threat of losing 12 West German divisions, which would have become part of the NATO armed forces in the event of a positive decision on the creation of the EOC. Moreover, it was believed that 12 divisions was just the beginning. The conversation between Eisenhower and Dulles, reflected in the president's memoirs, is indicative: “Why shouldn't West Germany put twenty divisions instead of twelve? Eisenhower asked. "Twenty German divisions," Dulles replied, "would have terrified the French." Eisenhower snorted. "American resources," he concluded, "should not be regarded as inexhaustible." The United States resolutely demanded a leading role in the Atlantic community, while striving to shift the burden of military and economic costs onto the shoulders of partner countries as much as possible when creating the military structure of NATO. With the help of British diplomacy, on October 23, 1954, the United States achieved the signing of the Paris Agreements on the entry of West Germany into NATO. On January 15, 1955, the government of the USSR proposed holding all-German free elections in 1955 and resolving the issue of German unification. Nevertheless, on May 5, 1955, just 10 years after the end of the war, the Paris Agreements on the accession of Germany to NATO came into force. Ten days later, on May 14, the socialist countries signed in Warsaw the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance, known as the Warsaw Pact. Thus, the question of the post-war unification of Germany was removed from the agenda, and for a long 34 years Europe was divided into two opposing camps.

US policy in Asia

While still Commander-in-Chief of the NATO Armed Forces, Eisenhower showed an understanding of the problems faced by France, which was waging the war in Vietnam. On February 5, 1850, Eisenhower wrote from Paris to the head of the Ford Foundation, Hoffmann: “A recent conversation with the Prime Minister and Minister of Defense of France left me with the impression that the public is not fully aware of the financial difficulties of France. The war of attrition in Indochina is increasingly affecting France's position in Europe. In another letter, Eisenhower was even more explicit: "Most worrying is the growing evidence of the approaching bankruptcy of France." Taking into account the current situation, Eisenhower was reluctant to take practical steps and sent the aircraft carriers of the US fleet to Southeast Asia, to formally help an ally in the bloc, only in March 1954, which, in principle, did not save the French expeditionary force near Dien Bien Phu from defeat in May 1954. By his act, Eisenhower kept the appearance of "Atlantic solidarity", while the United States did not openly participate in the conflict.

At this time, there were active subversive activities carried out by the CIA in South Vietnam.

At the meeting of the Ministers of Foreign Affairs of the USSR, the USA, Britain, France and the PRC, held in Geneva since April 26, 1954, two issues were discussed - Korean and Indochinese. The US was forced to attend this meeting under the threat of diplomatic isolation. Dulles represented the US government at the meeting. Only Australia and South Korea responded to the call for US support for the "internationalization" of the Vietnam War, which had no political or military significance for the US. Finding himself in a difficult situation, Dulles chose to leave the meeting, leaving B. Smith in his place, as a result of which no agreement was signed by the United States on any point. In view of the refusal of the United States and other participants in the intervention in Korea to accept the proposal for the withdrawal of foreign troops from this country and its unification through free elections to the all-Korean National Assembly, the issue of Korean reunification ended in vain.

The creation of two more pacts, SEATO (1954) and CENTO (1957), which created military-political blocs of powers in Asia that form and support the American sphere of influence, is connected with the activities of Eisenhower. As a result of the course towards the global encirclement of the USSR and its allies with a ring of pro-American military bases, the United States was bound by military obligations of 42 states.

At the same time, the problems of American politics in Asia inherited by the Eisenhower government were not resolved - Soviet-American relations, the Korean War, the Japanese problem, the war in Indochina and the Taiwan question (after the failure of American aggression in Korea and the defeat of the French colonialists in Vietnam, the United States openly went to militarize Taiwan , considering it as an important link in the system of US pacts in Asia) that were associated with relations between the US and China.

Having come to power, in relations with the PRC, Eisenhower took into account the main factor at that time - the military-political alliance between the USSR and the PRC, which in the event of a conflict was fraught with extremely serious consequences for the United States. Speaking at a press conference on August 4, 1954, he spoke out against the admission of the PRC to the UN, while on December 2 he made an unofficial statement in which he emphasized that the blockade of the PRC would be tantamount to an act of war that would put the USSR against the United States in cancer of the conflict. This was understood by Secretary Dulles, who wrote in one of the documents on June 30, 1954: “If the United States strikes China with atomic and hydrogen weapons, Soviet Russia will immediately come to China and strike back at the United States."

US policy in Latin America

Latin America remained an important area for the application of American capital, which quickly and brutally ousted its competitors. Along with considerations of a military-political nature, economic factors determined the main directions of the policy of the Eisenhower administration. One of the “achievements” of this policy was the “Anti-Communist Resolution” imposed on the participants of the Inter-American Conference in Caracas in March 1954, which legalized “collective intervention” in the affairs of those countries where democratic forces come to power, which in practice resulted in an individual “right” The United States to overthrow any unwanted regime in Latin America.

At the same time, Eisenhower, realistically assessing the situation, noted: “the fundamental problems of Latin America are illiteracy and poverty ...” and these problems cannot be solved either by American handouts or by American bayonets. Under the pressure of revolutionary patriotic forces in 1957-1959, the US-supported regimes in Venezuela, Colombia and Cuba collapsed. The trip of the envoy of the US President Richard Nixon with his wife to the countries of Latin America almost ended in physical reprisals against them in Venezuela. One of the important factors in curbing anti-American sentiment and improving relations in Latin America was the activities carried out by Milton Eisenhower, who since 1953 served as the President's ambassador for special assignments in Latin American countries.

US policy in the Middle East

The first armed conflicts between the national liberation movements of the Arab countries and the state of Israel could not remain far from the attention of the United States. Indicative of the position of the United States in the development of relations was the secret memorandum “What I did for Israel” compiled by John Dulles on September 21, 1949, a document marked “Confidential. Not to be published under any circumstances”, in six paragraphs of which Dulles' significant contribution to the creation of the State of Israel and the strengthening of its international position was listed.

Against the backdrop of a general upsurge in the national liberation movement, after the victory of the 1956 revolution in Egypt, the Suez Canal, which belonged to an English company, was nationalized. As part of a triple aggression coordinated by Israel (on the night of October 29-30), Great Britain and France (from October 31) began military operations against Egypt. The USA and the USSR called for an end to aggression, the USSR warned of the possibility of using nuclear weapons against France and Great Britain, after which they retreated and by November 7 hostilities were stopped. The fact that none of the participants in the aggression against Egypt consulted the United States gave Eisenhower the moral right to publicly denounce Israel's policies. The reluctance of Great Britain and France, the US partners in NATO, to inform their senior partner about the impending strike against Egypt - all this clearly indicated that "Atlantic solidarity" is a rather arbitrary concept and that the Western allies are guided by their own interests in solving the cardinal problems of world politics. Nevertheless, during the Egyptian crisis, Eisenhower showed a certain flexibility and did not go for a further aggravation of Anglo-American relations. In particular, the United States did not follow any sanctions against the participants in the aggression. Considering real ratios forces between NATO allies, Great Britain and France were limited in their actions, and given that only the factor of force determines the capabilities of participants in aggressive military-political blocs, NATO partners and Israel were forced to accept the American point of view. However, there was no fundamental change in the policy of the states that adopted a sharply anti-Egyptian position. England was granted a loan of 500 million dollars, and in the sphere of American-Israeli economic relations a course was laid for the all-round development of military-political cooperation in the future. On the eve of the 1956 election campaign, Eisenhower underwent surgery and could not actively carry out his duties. It was at this time that Dulles took back the consent given earlier to Egypt to finance the construction of the Aswan Dam - subsequently, the USSR provided technical assistance in the construction of the dam, and a third of the project cost was written off due to the loyalty of the Nasser regime to the USSR.

After the presidency

Awards

US awards

• US Army Distinguished Service Medal (10/7/1922) with oak leaves to it (09/7/1943, 07/13/1945, 08/7/1948, 06/2/1952)
• Medal "For Outstanding Naval Merit" (06/25/1947)
• Order of the Legion of Honor (11/25/1943)
• Medal of Merit in the Mexican Expeditions (07/09/1918)
• "Medal of Victory in the First World War", (04/09/1918)
• "American Defense Medal", (2.04.1947)
• Medal "For participation in hostilities in the European, African, Middle Eastern and Middle Eastern theaters", (07/22/1947)
• World War II Victory Medal (USA) (04/2/1947)
• Army medal "For occupational service in Germany", (04/2/1947)

Foreign awards

• Grand Cross of the Order of the Liberator of General San Martin, Argentina (05/12/1950)
• Grand Cross of the Order of Merit, Austria (10/13/1965)
• Knight Grand Cross of the Order of Leopold II, Belgium (07/30/1945)
• Cross "For the war 1940", Belgium (07/30/1945)
• Grand Cross of the Order of Military Merit, Brazil (19.06.1946)
• Grand Cross of the Order of Aviation Merit, Brazil (5.08.1946)
• Grand Cross of the National Order of the Southern Cross, Brazil (5.08.1946)
• Military medal, Brazil (1.07.1946)
• European Campaign Medal, Brazil (08/6/1946)
• Grand Cross of the Order of Merit, Chile (12.03.1947)
• Large Badge of the Special Class "Order of the Cloud and Banner", China (Kuomintang) (09/18/1947)
• First class of the "Order of the White Lion", Czechoslovakia (10/11/1945)
• First class "Order of the White Lion "For Victory", Czechoslovakia (10/11/1945)
• Military medal 1939, Czechoslovakia (10/11/1945)
• Order of the Elephant, Denmark (12/19/1945)
• First class of the Order of the Star of Abdon Calderón, Ecuador (03/30/1949)
• Grand order with the star of the Supreme Order of Ismail, Egypt (05/24/1947)
• Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Bath, UK (12/06/1943)
• Order of Merit, UK (6/12/1945)
• "", Great Britain (11/18/1943)
• Grand Cross of the Order of Solomon, Ethiopia (14.02.1948)
• The highest degree of the Order of the Queen of Sheba, Ethiopia (05/16/1954)
• Knight Grand Cross of the Legion of Honor , France (06/15/1943)
• Military Cross, France (19.06.1943)
• Order of the Liberation, France (09/5/1945)
• Military medal, France (05/21/1952)
• Knight Grand Cross of the Order of George I, Greece (13.07.1946)
• Royal Order of the Savior, Greece (03/14/1952)
• War Merit Cross First Class, Guatemala (30/04/1947)
• Grand Cross of the Order of Honor and Merit, Haiti (3.07.1945)
• Grand Cross of the Military Order, Italy (5.12.1947)
• Grand Cross of the Order of Merit of the Sovereign Order of Malta (1.04.1952)
• The highest order of the Chrysanthemum with a large ribbon, Japan (27.09.1960)
• Knight Grand Cross with the Crown of the Order of the Holy Spirit, Luxembourg (08/3/1945)
• Military medal, Luxembourg (3.08.1945)
• First Class of the Order of Military Merit, Mexico (08/17/1946)
• Knight Grand Cross of the Order of the Aztec Eagle, Mexico (8/15/1946)
• Civic Merit Medal,