Lexical word compatibility- this is the ability of a word to combine with other words of the context without violating the semantic and grammatical patterns of word combinations. Lexical compatibility is determined by the language of the possibility of combining words within a phrase or connecting a subject with a predicate. Phraseological units of a language can be considered an extreme case of the dependence of words on such a possibility.
Deliberate violation of the semantic or grammatical patterns of word combinations underlies some stylistic figures and tropes.
Unintentional, accidental violation of lexical compatibility leads to a speech error. A common case of violation of lexical compatibility is a construction in which parts of synonymous phrases are erroneously combined: play a role (play a role and make a difference), take action (take action and take action).
Lexical redundancy- this is the common name for two stylistic phenomena: pleonasm and tautology, associated with the presence in a sentence of two words instead of one.
Lexical redundancy is used as a stylistic device of amplification: see with your own eyes, hear with your ears.
Pleonasm- this is lexical redundancy arising from the duplication of the lexical meaning of one word by another, whole or any part of it: interior(the interior already matters internal), idle.
There are two types of pleonasms. Pleonasm is obligatory, or structurally conditioned, which is not a stylistic error and is widely represented in the language: come down the mountain(duplication of preposition and prefix), never read.
Pleonasm- a stylistic error in which superfluous, redundant words are combined into a phrase or sentence. PLEONASM(Greek - excess).
1. A means of lexical expressiveness based on the use in a sentence or text of words that are close in meaning, creating semantic redundancy.
Pleonasm is found in folklore: once upon a time, sadness-longing, path-path, sea-okiya. Also, this tool is widely used in fiction, usually with the aim of concretizing the details of the narrative or enhancing emotions, assessments: Indeed, extremely strange! - said the official, - the place perfectly smooth like a freshly baked pancake. Yes, unbelievably smooth! (N. Gogol, "The Nose"); The old fear gripped him again. everything from head to toe (F. Dostoevsky, "Crime and Punishment"); - I didn't see you the whole week I didn't hear you so long. I passionately want, I thirsty your voice. Speak up.(A. Chekhov, "Ionych").
2. A kind of lexical error associated with a violation of the norms of lexical compatibility, when words that are unnecessary from a semantic point of view are used in a phrase or sentence. For example, in a sentence They ensured the rhythmic and uninterrupted operation of the enterprise. definitions express similar meanings; here one of them is sufficient. Author's inscription on the cover of the book I dedicate to my dad - Sergey Mikhailovich pleonastic; enough Dedicated to my dad...
Typical examples of non-normative pleonasm are phrases in which the meaning of one word repeats the meaning of another: more important (more redundant because more important means "more important") first premiere(enough premiere- "the first performance of a play, film or performance of a musical work"), atmospheric air(enough air- "a mixture of gases that forms the Earth's atmosphere"), eventually(right in the end or enough eventually), go back(verb return indicates movement backwards, in the opposite direction), import from abroad(enough import- "to import from abroad").
Some pleonastic phrases have become entrenched in the language and are not considered erroneous, for example: go down, go up, time period, exhibit(Latin exponatus means "exposed"), people's democracy (democracy translated from Greek"People power").
In fiction and journalism, non-normative lexical redundancy can act as a means of speech characterization of characters: - Here you are laughing and bare your teeth, - said Vasya, - but I really, Marya Vasilievna, warmly welcome you love and I love (M. Zoshchenko, "Love").
Tautology- this is lexical redundancy, in which within the phrase or combination of the subject and the predicate in the sentence, single-root words are repeated: soon the fairy tale is told, but not soon the deed is done.
The tautology is humorously demonstrated in the Baby Monitor program in the following poem:
I prefer autumn the most
When everything bears fruit,
And they mow hay in a hayfield,
And butter is on the table.
Often tautological repetitions are not a stylistic mistake, but the only possible characteristic of an object (salt salt, life to live). Tautological combinations of words are found in folk poetic works, in proverbs and sayings: friendship is friendship, and service is service.
Unintentional tautology testifies to the inability to use the synonymous richness of the language, that is, it is a stylistic mistake.
Lexical repetitions Stylistically inappropriate repetition of the same words: I study at a technical school. After graduating from college, I will work in the gas field.
Lexical insufficiency- a stylistic error, consisting in the omission of the necessary component of the phrase: This question worries me to the depths (soul). Lexical insufficiency is sometimes associated with linguistic phenomenon, which is called constriction: he drinks (alcoholic drinks), his brother serves (in the army). But with lexical insufficiency, such semantic contraction does not occur, and the fulfillment of the missing component of the phrase remains necessary.
Tautology, pleonasm, inappropriate repetitions of words make the text dissonant and make it difficult to perceive. The reasons for such errors are common: poverty of speech, inability to use synonyms, ignorance of the lexical meaning of words, as well as underdevelopment of “speech hearing”: the speaker does not notice that he inappropriately uses words that are close in meaning or have the same root.
The use of phraseological units in speech obeys historically established rules fixed by tradition. From the point of view of stylistic phraseological units of the language are heterogeneous. Some of them have a colloquial or colloquial emotional and expressive coloring and therefore are not used in purely bookish styles (official business and scientific). Other shades of bookishness, refer to high vocabulary, are often part of poeticisms.
As a language game, there is a deliberate destruction of a phraseological phrase, the replacement of one of the components in order to give a different, often ironic meaning: The one who shoots first laughs best.
Unintentional destruction of phraseological turnover is a stylistic mistake.
TAUTOLOGY(Greek - the same and - the word) - a kind of pleonasm; the use of single-root words in a sentence or text.
Tautology is found in proverbs and sayings: friendship friendship , a service by service; life to live– not a field to go; free will ; in phraseological turns: walk shaking, crowded, eat by eater .
Expressively colored tautological combinations are characteristic of folklore: Soon fairy tale affects, but not soon the deed is done; sit down sit, bitter grief .
The intentional use of single-root words serves as a means of lexical expressiveness in fiction and journalism: “ Gorky with fur mine laugh "(N. Gogol); " How mind is smart, how business is efficient, // How terrible fear, how darkness is dark!// How life is alive! How death is fatal! // How youth young yuna ! "(Z. Ezrohi)," Law there is law " (from the newspaper).
The tautology is lexical error if the use of cognate words is not justified by stylistic purposes and is random: put together, dance a dance, treat sports in a sporty way, confirm the statement. Usually, an unintentional tautology is said like this: butter oil.
§ 7. Speech errors associated with ignorance of the meaning of the word
The semantic accuracy of speech is one of the main conditions that ensure the practical and often legal value of a business text. An incorrectly chosen word can distort the meaning of the message, create an opportunity to interpret this or that phrase in two ways, and finally, give the text an undesirable tone. All this makes it difficult to understand the content of the document.
Indistinguishing paronyms. Paronyms are similar-sounding single-root words that differ in meaning: inhale - take a breath, warranty ■-guaranteed, place - place.
Compare words seconded and business trip. Word seconded derived from the verb send and has the meaning ‘a person sent on a business trip on a business trip’: Seconded cadets are provided with a hostel ...(Nick.); I settled in a small cozy house for business travelers(Paust.). Word business trip derived from a noun business trip and denotes objects, things, circumstances associated with this concept: travel permit, get travel allowance. AT oral speech word business trip sometimes misused instead of a word seconded: In the Collective Farmer's House, a quick, city-dressed man looked at her ID and said: - Nadia, spend a business trip(Nick.). Such, erroneous from the point of view of strictly standardized literary speech, the use of the word business trip can be observed in business texts: Servicemen, invalids of the Great Patriotic War, business travelers(should: business travelers) tickets are provided out of the general queue.
Compare the use of polysemantic verbs submit and provide:
introduce -1) present, report:provide a list of employees, provide evidence; 2) introduce someone to:introduce a new employee to the team, 3) apply (for a promotion, for an award):submit to the next rank, submit to the order, 4) compose, discover:be of considerable value, 5) mentally imagine:imagine (oneself) a picture battle; 6) depict, show:present in a funny way.For example:Applications for sports equipment must be submitted to the factory committee.
provide- 1) give at someone's disposal, use:provide an apartment, provide vehicles-, 2) to give the right, the opportunity to do, to carry out something:provide
leave, give the floor, give the post", 3) allow to act independently or leave unattended:leave it to yourself, leave it to chance. For example:Kolkhozes and state farms of the region will receive additional credits.
Obviously the verbs introduce and provide one should not be used instead of the other.
In some cases, paronyms can converge in meaning and be used as synonyms: conduct / produce experience, learn / master the material. It should be borne in mind that the words that form such synonymous pairs always differ both in their lexical compatibility and in shades of meaning; compare: having a lesson - make noise, learn a lesson - master production.
The same correlation of lexical compatibility and significance can be observed, for example, when using verbs place and place. There is a common component in their meaning - ‘give a place, place in a certain place’, therefore these verbs can be used as synonyms: place/accommodate business travelers in a hotel In this context, semantic differences between verbs are of little importance. However, in cases where verbs place and place combined with other words, these differences appear very clearly. Word place can be used in relation to one object, person, or to many: place the student/students in the hostel. Verb place in a similar context means ‘to give everyone their place’ and therefore can only be used in relation to many objects, persons: place pictures on the walls.
Paronyms can differ not only in shades of meaning, but also in ways of grammatical connection with other words. Consider the synonymic series pay - pay - pay‘pay a fee’. On the one hand, unlike verbs pay, pay word pay is used only when it comes to monetary (material) reimbursement of some preliminary expenses (credit, the cost of something): pay the bill<полученный инвентарь>. On the other hand, unlike verbs pay, pay word pay doesn't need a suggestion per. It governs a noun in the accusative form without a preposition, pay for construction <business trip>.
Paronyms may differ in stylistic coloring, cf .: tourist - tourist, ocean - oceanic. As a rule, in this case of the use of paronyms, we observe differences either in their compatibility with other words, or in the shades of meaning that appear when words are combined. Wed: tourist/tourist package, ocean/ocean currents, but on tourist(not tourist) trails, ocean(not oceanic) expanses; forms tourist, oceanic are more common in special (business, scientific) speech and therefore have a stylistic coloring of bookishness. The confusion of paronyms is one of the most gross violations of the norms of literary speech.
Errors in the use of synonyms. Synonyms are words with the same or very close meaning: future - coming, raise - raise, build - build, hasten - hurry. Synonyms are very rarely completely identical to one another. As a rule, they differ in shades of meaning, lexical compatibility or stylistic coloring. Wed: mind‘disagreeing with smth., give your own arguments’; contradict‘assert something opposite, often without sufficient justification’; contradict‘to speak in defiance, and mainly out of stubbornness, a feeling of irritation’; in the same series of synonyms and the verb rebuke(outdated).
Inattention to the shades of the meanings of synonyms, ignorance of the traditional norms of lexical compatibility can lead to a semantic error. Compare synonymous verbs build and erect. Verb build can be used in any context and in combination with any noun when it comes to the construction, construction, construction of something: build a reservoir FROM car >. Verb erect(according to the meaning of the prefix WHO-) can only be used in relation to something that rises above something, rises up: erect a building<.стёны>. When using the verb erect it is also necessary to take into account the fact that it is not customary to combine it with nouns that name buildings for official or everyday use. Not properly: erect(should: build) barn< stable, bath etc.>.
Synonymous words defect, deficiency, defect indicate the imperfection of something, but the conditions for their use are not the same. Word defect usually used only in relation to technical products: design defects. The words flaw, defectcan refer both to what is created by nature, and to the processes or results of social activity:Flaws in the team's training were revealed at the very first competition; The lack of binding components is caused by deficiencies in the course of the enzymatic interaction.
Errors in the use of synonyms often occur because a polysemantic word can be synonymous with another in only one of its meanings. For example, the word typical for business texts request in one of the meanings is synonymous with the word requirement(required in plural form): customer requests/requirements. At the same time, it does not have the inherent word requirements meanings ‘norm, the order in which someone-sth. must match': university entrance requirements<.к качеству то- варов>. Word requests synonymous with interests in the context spiritual < cultural > requests(= interests). However, it does not mean ‘what is good is for the benefit of someone-sth.’. Not properly: Personal requests(should: interests) should be harmoniously combined with the public. Finally, the word request as ‘an official appeal demanding to give some smth. information’ is not synonymous with the word question, although some components of their meaning (the moment one person turns to another, the desire to receive an answer) coincide. Not properly: Members of the trade union committee gave detailed answers to inquiries(should: questions) about the construction of a new house.
Pleonasms and tautology. Pleonasm (from gr. peopathosis- overabundance) is called a partial coincidence of the meanings of the words that form the phrase: memorable souvenir (souvenir‘remembrance gift’) advanced avant-garde (avant-garde‘those who are ahead’), joint cooperation (collaboration‘joint problem solving, teamwork’). Pleonastic turns of speech like Hot work is in full swing in the fields; We need to mutually help each other.
The presence of pleonasms in the text is usually considered as a speech deficiency, the inability to express an idea accurately and concisely. Indeed, when we speak in April, then why add month? when we talk 150 rubles, does it need to be explained of money(or cash)? Nevertheless, more than one case can be pointed out when the assessment of the correctness or incorrectness of word usage requires caution.
Under the conditions of a certain style of speech, constant contextual lexical compatibility, for example, in official texts, pleonasm can take the form of a stable, phraseologically related phrase: Fully and completely recognize the right of the people to ...; Fully and completely share the feelings ... . Such stable turns of speech do not resist repetitions such as strongly, strongly, strongly, firmly, perform the same expressive-amplifying function, although in relation to a different style of speech. Their use should not be classified as a violation of the stylistic norm of literary speech. Pleonastic terminological phrases like Announcement(any message contains information).
Finally, phrases that are typical pleonasms can change in speech in such a way that the criteria for assessing their correctness or incorrectness also change. Not properly: price list (price list‘price list’), however expressions like retail price list, local price list, within which the concept of price is concretized and takes the form of a detailed phrase. Not properly: own autobiography (autobiography‘description of one’s own life’), however, in certain contexts, the use of this phrase is quite justified: publish your(not another person) autobiography.
A violation of the norms of literary correctness and culture of speech is also tautology - semantic repetitions that occur in cases where the same root words are adjacent in a sentence: The benefits of using mounted units ... ; Consider the following facts... ; This phenomenon is fully manifested in the conditions ... . Tautological repetitions make the phrase dissonant. In addition, they make it difficult to perceive, because they attract special attention to themselves.
The use of homonyms. Homonyms are words that sound the same but differ in meaning: onion'weapon' and onion'plant'; marriage‘marriage’ and marriage‘defect, defect, shortcoming’. In works of fiction and journalism, homonyms are sometimes used as a means of representation. Here is how, for example, the word is played passage in one of the newspaper articles: Let's go to the largest Sverdlovsk store TSUM, or « Passage», as it has long been called the Sverdlovsk. Unexpected passages are really at every turn here. In business texts, such use of homonyms practically does not occur, although it is possible under special conditions (for example, in a speech, if necessary, express your assessment without resorting to the usual wording, etc.).
Some speech errors may also be associated with the phenomenon of homonymy. The most common of them is the use of homonyms (as well as polysemantic words, in which the connection between individual meanings is not clearly felt) in contexts that allow dual understanding.
The possibility of a double understanding of the phrase is sometimes observed when using reflexive verbs. For example: After the examination, patients are sent for treatment at the place of residence.- in this context, the meaning of the verb is not quite clear sent(someone sends the sick or they go, they go); It's easy to fix this error: After examination, patients are sent for treatment ...(this value is more likely).
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Speech is a channel for the development of intellect,
the sooner the language is learned,
the easier and more complete the knowledge will be assimilated.
Nikolai Ivanovich Zhinkin,
Soviet linguist and psychologist
Speech is conceived by us as an abstract category, inaccessible to direct perception. Meanwhile, this is the most important indicator of a person’s culture, his intellect and, a way of knowing the complex relationships of nature, things, society and transmitting this information through communication.
Obviously, both learning and already using something, we make mistakes due to inability or ignorance. And speech, like other types of human activity (in which language is an important component), is no exception in this respect. All people make mistakes, both in and in oral speech. Moreover, the concept of speech culture, as an idea of "", is inextricably linked with the concept of a speech error. In fact, these are parts of one process, which means that, striving for perfection, we must be able to recognize speech errors and eradicate them.
Types of speech errors
First, let's look at what speech errors are. Speech errors are any cases of deviation from the current language norms. Without their knowledge, a person can live normally, work and communicate with others. But the effectiveness of the actions taken in certain cases may suffer. In this regard, there is a risk of being misunderstood or misunderstood. And in situations where our personal success depends on it, this is unacceptable.
The author of the classification of speech errors below is Doctor of Philology Yu. V. Fomenko. Its division, in our opinion, is the simplest, devoid of academic pretentiousness and, as a result, understandable even to those who do not have a special education.
Types of speech errors:
Examples and causes of speech errors
S. N. Zeitlin writes: “The complexity of the mechanism for generating speech acts as a factor contributing to the occurrence of speech errors.” Let's consider special cases, based on the classification of types of speech errors proposed above.
Pronunciation errors
Pronunciation or pronunciation errors occur as a result of violation of the rules of orthoepy. In other words, the reason lies in the incorrect pronunciation of sounds, sound combinations, individual grammatical structures and borrowed words. They also include accentological errors - violation of the norms of stress. Examples:
Pronunciation: “of course” (and not “of course”), “poshti” (“almost”), “plot” (“pays”), “precedent” (“precedent”), “iliktric” (“electric”), “colidor” (“corridor”), “laboratory” (“laboratory”), “thousand” (“thousand”), “right now” (“now”).
stress: “calls”, “dialogue”, “contract”, “catalog”, “overpass”, “alcohol”, “beetroot”, “phenomenon”, “chauffeur”, “expert”.
Lexical errors
Lexical errors - violation of the rules of vocabulary, first of all - the use of words in unusual meanings, distortion of the morphemic form of words and the rules of semantic agreement. They are of several types.
The use of a word in an unusual sense. This is the most common lexical speech error. Within this type, there are three subtypes:
- Mixing words that are close in meaning: "He read the book back."
- Mixing words that sound similar: excavator - escalator, ear - colossus, Indian - turkey, single - ordinary.
- Mixing words that are similar in meaning and sound: subscriber - subscription, addressee - addressee, diplomat - diplomat, well-fed - well-fed, ignorant - ignorant. "Cashier for business trips" (necessary - seconded).
word writing. Error examples: Georgian, heroism, underground workers, winder.
Violation of the rules of semantic agreement of words. Semantic agreement is the mutual adaptation of words along the line of their real meanings. For example, you cannot say: I raise this toast", since "raise" means "move", which is not consistent with the wish. “Through the door wide open” is a speech error, because the door cannot be both ajar (slightly open) and wide open (wide open) at the same time.
This also includes pleonasms and tautologies. Pleonasm is a phrase in which the meaning of one component is entirely included in the meaning of another. Examples: “May month”, “traffic route”, “address of residence”, “huge metropolis”, “to be on time”. A tautology is a phrase whose members have the same root: “The task was set”, “The organizer was one social organization"," I wish you a long creative longevity.
Phraseological errors
Phraseological errors occur when the form of phraseological units is distorted or they are used in an unusual meaning. Yu. V. Fomenko distinguishes 7 varieties:
- Changing the lexical composition of a phraseological unit: “While the essence and the case” instead of “While the court and the case”;
- Truncation of a phraseological unit: “It was just right for him to hit the wall” (phraseologism: “hit his head against the wall”);
- Expansion of the lexical composition of a phraseological unit: “You turned to the wrong address” (phraseologism: contact the address);
- Distortion of the grammatical form of a phraseological unit: "I can't stand to sit with my hands folded." Correct: "difficult";
- Contamination (association) of phraseological units: “You can’t do everything idly by” (a combination of phraseological units “sleeveless” and “idly folded”);
- The combination of pleonasm and phraseological unit: "A random stray bullet";
- The use of phraseological units in an unusual meaning: "Today we're going to talk about the film from cover to cover."
Morphological errors
Morphological errors are the incorrect formation of word forms. Examples of such speech errors: “reserved seat”, “shoes”, “towels”, “cheaper”, “one and a half hundred kilometers”.
Syntax errors
Syntax errors are associated with a violation of the rules of syntax - the construction of sentences, the rules for combining words. There are a lot of varieties of them, so we will give only a few examples.
- Wrong match: “There are a lot of books in the closet”;
- Mismanagement: "Pay for the fare";
- Syntactic ambiguity: "Reading Mayakovsky made a strong impression"(did Mayakovsky read or did you read Mayakovsky's works?);
- Structural displacement: “The first thing I ask of you is your attention.” Correct: “The first thing I ask you is attention”;
- Extra correlative word in the main sentence: "We were looking at those stars that dotted the whole sky."
Spelling mistakes
This type of error occurs due to ignorance of the rules of spelling, hyphenation, abbreviation of words. characteristic of speech. For example: “The dog barked”, “sit on chairs”, “come to the railway station”, “Russian. language", "gram. error".
Punctuation errors
Punctuation errors - incorrect use of punctuation marks with.
Stylistic mistakes
We devoted a separate topic to this topic.
Ways to correct and prevent speech errors
How to prevent speech errors? Your speech work should include:
- Reading fiction.
- Visiting theaters, museums, exhibitions.
- Communication with educated people.
- Constant work on improving the culture of speech.
Online course "Russian language"
Speech errors are one of the most problematic topics that receive little attention in school. There are not so many topics in the Russian language in which people most often make mistakes - about 20. We decided to devote the course "" to these topics. In the classroom, you will get the opportunity to work out the skill of competent writing using a special system of multiple distributed repetitions of the material through simple exercises and special memorization techniques.
Sources
- Bezzubov A. N. Introduction to literary editing. - St. Petersburg, 1997.
- Savko I. E. Basic speech and grammatical errors
- Sergeeva N. M. Speech, grammatical, ethical, factual errors ...
- Fomenko Yu. V. Types of speech errors. - Novosibirsk: NGPU, 1994.
- Zeitlin S. N. Speech errors and their prevention. – M.: Enlightenment, 1982.
12. Eliminate speech errors associated with a violation of the lexical compatibility of words. Indicate the sentences in which the violation of lexical compatibility is associated with the presence of a paronym in the misused word.
1. The stranger mounted a horse and rode on foot. 2. When a pilot gets into the cockpit of an unbroken aircraft, he thinks: “Who is the first, if not me?”. 3. The new film is doomed to great success with the widest circles of the public. 4. Despite the fact that I am many years old, I am proud of my stainless youth. 5. I agree that this is a snap decision. 6. Maxim was a malicious person. Ivanov is an evil truant. 7. Lecture for childless parents is postponed to next Thursday. 8. During these years, there has been an exuberant growth in our cinematography. 9. From fatigue, my body gave way on my feet. 10. The stained-glass windows of the cathedral were made of special types of wood, and the secret of their manufacture is unknown. 11. The students of our group have achieved a deterioration in academic performance and discipline in this semester. 12. Dog grazing is prohibited. 13. An old house is for sale. 14. Favorable cataclysms occurred in the leadership of the oil company, as a result of which knowledgeable, experienced managers came to management. 15. His manner of dressing pretentiously betrayed a modest and shy nature. 16. There is a monstrous improvement in living conditions. 17. Widespread testing of this cream has led to extremely positive results. 18. The Moskovsky plant provides the population of the capital with young vegetables all year round. 19. Now many writers are closely involved in politics.
20. But before using the material and easily vibrating with facts, I want to state my thoughts on Bazarov. 21. This is a wayward explanation. 22. Pupils themselves can put questions to the speaker. 23. Preparations for the fair began well in advance, so by its opening all services were in a state of calm excitement. 24. There is architecture in the park. 25. Most of the game has already passed. 26. At the end of the competition, the authoritarian jury will have to name the winner. 27. All the children were terribly happy. 28. Extra-curricular activities play a positive role in the development of children. 29. It was the most memorable event in my life. 30. Father was sitting with his back on the table. 31. The students listened twice to the conversation about Bunin's work. 32. Athletes of the team were going to a rehearsal. 33. This person is a complete ignoramus in matters of art. 34. The precedent between the police and the students ended with numerous arrests. 35. Before starting my studies, I read back the stories of A.P. Chekhov. 36. The abundance of accessories burdens the plot, diverting attention from the main thing. 37. Thanks to the cooperation and antagonism of neighboring countries, a common customs policy was developed. 38. Serious flaws were discovered in the work of the hospital staff. 39. A person must be judged not by words, but by deeds. 40. An ivy plant grows in a pot.The use of synonyms, antonyms in speech
These types of errors include:
indistinguishability of words - paronyms (paronyms are similar-sounding related, single-root words that differ in meaning), for example:
present and provide
warranty and guaranteed
business trip and business trip
place and place
conduct and produce
pay and pay, etc.
inattention to the shades of the meanings of synonymous words (synonyms are words that have the same or very close meaning); synonyms are rarely absolutely identical, as a rule, they differ in shades of meaning. Inattention to them, ignorance of the norms of lexical compatibility of words leads to semantic violations, for example:
RIGHT WRONG:
build a farm build a farm
build a bridge build a kiosk
design defects education defects
the presence of pleonasm words in the text (pleonasms are words that are close in meaning); this deficiency is usually the result of an inability to express accurately and concisely, it is often caused by ignorance of the meaning of a borrowed word (when combining words of Russian and foreign origin denoting the same thing), for example:
uselessly disappears
joint cooperation
wasted in vain
advanced avant-garde
practical measures
break interval
mutual assistance to each other
price list
commemorative memorial
time keeping
interior
autobiography of life, etc.
Some pleonasms, however, have acquired a terminological character (for example: "information message") or the character of a stable phrase (for example: "entirely and completely"). Such combinations are also permissible if the word included in the phrase has changed its meaning or acquired a new shade of meaning, for example:
second-hand book (in the sense of "old")
period of time (the word "period" does not mean "time", but "a period of time")
monumental monument ("monumental" - in the meaning of "large", "majestic");
the presence in the text of a tautology (semantic repetitions) that occurs if cognate words are adjacent, for example:
"Achievements reached by the enterprise..."; “the following facts should be taken into account...”; "This phenomenon is manifested in ...".
The repetition of cognate words is permissible if the repeated words are the only carriers of meanings, for example:
“The investigating authorities investigated...”;
verbosity, or speech redundancy, i.e. the use of words and phrases that carry unnecessary information, for example:
Instead of: "Tariffs for the passage of passengers by urban passenger transport"
Necessary: "Tariffs for urban passenger transport"
Instead of: "Program of measures to support the activities of veteran organizations"
Necessary: "Program to support the activities of veteran organizations"
Instead of: "It was found that the existing rates are too high"
Necessary: "The rates were found to be inflated."
Instead of: "In his speech, he pointed out some shortcomings"
Necessary: "In his speech, he pointed out some shortcomings";
the use in one phrase of words with opposite meanings, often mutually exclusive, for example:
“The idea of grocery orders was developed jointly with senior officials of the City Hall, and there are enough goods to provide the poor citizens with the minimum necessary products” (if there are “quite enough” goods, then why “minimum”? It should be written: “there are enough goods to provide a minimum”) ;
omission of words, especially verbal nouns of the type: organization, implementation, provision, conduct, approval, etc., for example:
Instead of: "Conducting an experiment on the nutrition of schoolchildren"
Necessary: "Conducting an experiment on catering for schoolchildren"
Instead of: "On the Program of social protection of low-income categories of citizens »
Necessary: "On approval of the Program of social protection of low-income citizens".
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Control over the execution of documents
Control over the execution of documents and decisions made - key function management. The array of control information is part of the organization's information retrieval system.
and documentary information
The full cycle of human interaction with the documentary environment includes the following stages: documentation, understood as a certified fixation of information in special ways
Documents and formation of cases
Improving the work of the management apparatus, the efficiency and quality of solving the issues contained in the documents, to a large extent depend on the organization of the storage of documents,
Drafting case titles
The heading of the case is the most important element of the nomenclature. The main requirements for its preparation are to clearly and in a generalized form reflect the main content and composition of the case documents. header
Setting retention periods
The value of documents deposited in the fund-forming organization is not the same. Some are necessary only for operational work for a certain time and their long-term
Activities and formation of cases
Operational storage of documents is carried out in the services of the preschool educational institution, other structural divisions of organizations until they are handed over to the departmental archive. Operational storage is subdivided into
General requirements for the formation of cases
Work on the formation of cases consists of the following operations: distribution of executed documents for cases in accordance with the nomenclature of cases; document location
Documents
Administrative documents are formed into separate cases by name (orders, orders, instructions, decisions), which are specified by authorship (orders of the ministry,
Case cover design
The case is considered filed after being included in the folder for storing the first executed document. At the same time, the cover of the opened case is drawn up. On the cover of every restaurant
document information
In the modern Russian market economy, an indispensable condition for the success of an entrepreneur in business, making a profit and maintaining the integrity of the organizational structure he created
And the channels of its disclosure
Sources (owners) of valuable, confidential documented information are accumulators (concentrators, emitters) of this information. Among the main types of sources
and confidential documents
The information security system (IPS) is a complex of organizational, technical and technological means, methods and measures that prevent unauthorized (illegal)
Protected workflow
Document flow as an object of protection is a set (network) of channels for the distribution of documented confidential information to consumers in the process of managing
Documents
In the process of processing incoming confidential documents, the following tasks of protecting information and its carriers are solved:
Document data bank
Accounting for confidential documents involves not only the registration of the fact of creation (publication) or receipt of a document, but also the mandatory recording of all movements of the document
mi documents
When documents leave the confidential documentation service, their security is sharply reduced due to authorized familiarization with them by a significant number of employees
Documents
The main form of accounting for cases containing confidential documents is the nomenclature of cases of the current year, in accordance with which the formation, storage and verification of documents are organized.
During meetings and negotiations
Meetings and negotiations, during which information constituting the secret of the company or its partners may be mentioned, are usually referred to as confidential. Provo permission
Protection of documented information
Regulatory and methodological support for the protection of confidential information is intended to regulate the processes of ensuring the information security of a company, including when working
Russian Federation
The information storage system began to take shape simultaneously with the formation of a business writing system. Storage of information from chaotic becomes systemic as a result of evaluation.
Fund of the Russian Federation
The basis of the Unified State Archival Fund in 1918 was: nationalized former departmental historical archives; cases of liquidated
Commercial firm archive
In accordance with the Fundamentals of the Legislation of the Russian Federation on the Archival Fund Russian Federation and archives dated 300 July 7, 1993 “a set of documents reflecting
storage
Completed cases, completed projects, executed documents of permanent and long-term, over 10 years, storage are subject to mandatory additional design and description in
The composition of the accounting documents of the archive
For all cases completed in office work, magazines, file cabinets, projects and other storage units, files on personnel of permanent and temporary (over 10 years) storage that have passed
Archive storage equipment
Cases of long-term and permanent storage periods must be preserved until the end of the established period and their allocation for destruction, before the cases are handed over for state storage or
Using archived documents
The use of documents stored in the archive is one of the main tasks, to some extent justifying the investment in its organization. Depending on the purpose of use (gender
secretarial activities
The large-scale socio-economic changes taking place in our society, the renewal of the management system and its constituent elements, the dynamic and widespread introduction of the latest
Secretary activities
If we consider the regulatory, methodological and legal systems of personnel management in a broad sense, this is a set of documents of organizational, organizational and methodological, or
Development of a job description for a secretary
An approximate sequence of work on the creation of such an important document as job description regulating the activities of each employee, including the secretary, can
Secretary's instruction manual
A wealth of experience in training management personnel within the company is implemented in the development of training instructions. The presentation of the technology for creating these documents is an element
Scope of training instructions
The very name "training instructions" contains the main goal of the development and scope of the document - employee training. Training is needed when: a person enters a job
Secretary's instructions
A leader who is interested in ensuring that his secretary is clear and effective should contribute to the creation of a training instruction (TO). Development of instructions by specialists
Technologies
Management activity in any organization is based on data processing and production of output information, which implies the presence of technology for converting source data
Technologies
Information technology arose on Earth several million years ago, along with the first methods of communication (inarticulate sounds, facial expressions, gestures, touches) of our children.
Modern information technologies
The basis of modern information technologies is distributed computer technology, "friendly" software and advanced communications. However, computers are not
Techniques
Documentation support of managerial work is implemented through office work services for the activities of the management apparatus. Implementation of documentation processes
Techniques for modern office technologies
The classification of office equipment considered in this section does not completely negate the previously existing one, but only clarifies and concretizes it, taking into account modern trends in development.
Documents
The means of compiling and producing documents include manual writing instruments, typewriters, specialized software products for personal computers (PCs), printing
Polygraphy
Means of reprography and operational printing is a set of machines designed for copying and replicating documents. The means of reprography include means of photo
Document processing tools
The group of document processing tools includes machines and devices for the physical processing of the media (form material, which is the physical basis of the document). to them about
Telecommunication facilities
Telecommunication means include means and systems of telephone, telegraph communication, facsimile transmission of information, e-mail, etc. The beginning of telephone communication
Other office equipment
Banking office equipment includes specialized machines and devices designed to process banknotes, coins, various kinds of plastic credit and other cards. Technologist
Electronic office concept
The concept of the so-called electronic (automated) office is considered the key to solving the problem of increasing the level of efficiency of the office staff. In this case, r
Techniques
In the field of computer technology in the last decade, there probably has not been a more important and actively developing direction than the formation and development of local computing systems.
Computing networks
A global (large-scale) computer network WAN (Wide Area Network) is a set of computers-nodes geographically remote from each other, joint interaction
Transmission of continuous and discrete data
Briefly, the term data defines units that convey meaning or meaning. Continuous (analogue) data has values that change continuously over a certain time interval. In quality
Data encoding for digital and analog transmission
The transmission of analog signals is based on the transmission of a continuous signal of constant frequency, called the carrier signal. Discrete data during transmission over analog communication lines
Multiplexing
In both local and large-scale networks, there are cases when the bandwidth of the transmission medium exceeds that required for the transmission of a single signal. Economical use
Asynchronous and synchronous digital transmission
The basic requirement for digital data transmission is that the receiver knows the start time and transmission time period of each received bit. The oldest and simplest
Stations, nodes, communication network and switching methods
Devices that communicate with each other through a network are called stations. Computers, terminals, printers and other communication equipment can act as stations.
Circuit switching method
Circuit switching is used in networks when it is necessary to establish a direct physical channel connection between two stations. This connection is established in
Message switching method
Message switching is an implementation of the principle of staged data transfer with intermediate storage. There is no need to pre-book the entire path between two stations. Message
Packet switching methods
The message switching method has now found its development in the packet switching technique, which is used in two Modifications: in the datagram mode and in the virtual channel mode.
Open Systems Interaction Model
To overcome differences in the use of hardware and software tools from different manufacturers in computer networks and differences in individual modifications of these tools, even from one manufacturer Me
Layers of the OSI model
Each network subscriber system within the OSI model has seven levels (numbers of levels from 1 to 7). Subscribers can interact with each other within each of the seven levels using the corresponding
The simplest local area networks
As already noted, in the simplest homogeneous LANs there are no communication nodes. In these networks, very simple procedures for accessing network stations to a common transmission medium are usually used.
token ring
The Token Ring (IEEE 802.2) standard, proposed by IBM in 1984, is a more advanced scheme for implementing a deterministic network access control method using tokens.
ethernet
The most widespread is the cheaper version of the Ethernet standard (IEEE 802.3), developed by XEROX. Logically, this network is a bus, with the help of which each node communicates
High Speed LANs
Further development Ethernet technology was a new Fast Ethernet standard, also known as 100Base-T and 100Base-X technologies, providing data transfer rates up to 100 Mbps when using
texts
Text processing as a direction in the development of technology arose at the beginning of the 20th century. with the advent of the mechanical typewriter. Then, for more than half a century, the typewriter remained the only
Stages of preparing text documents
The preparation of texts using SPTD consists in the sequential execution of a number of stages. With some degree of conventionality, we can distinguish: typing; editor
Typing
With the current level of development of computer information technologies, the PC keyboard remains the main tool for entering the text of future documents. Keyboard typing can
Basic text editing functions
The document text created at the typing stage may be subject to changes in the future. With traditional document production technology, using a conventional typewriter does not even
Documents
Modern means of preparing text documents use two types of design of structural elements of the text. This is the immediate styling when the formatting is applied
Text character decoration
The minimum unit of information that the text preparation system operates on is a character. All operations for editing and formatting the text of a document are applicable to symbols. Training systems
Matrix Fonts
Until recently, this category was the only one. Fonts in this case are created using the so-called bitmap technology, or the bitmap method. A file with such a font stores "dotted" images.
Freely scalable fonts
The second way to create fonts is to encode the outline of the character in the form of straight and curved lines. These fonts are also called freely scalable fonts. When creating a font, use
Formatting document paragraphs
The appearance of a document to a large extent depends not only on the formatting of text characters, but also on the design of paragraphs of text. The paragraph is one of the main structural elements of prose
Layout of pages of a multipage document
If the text preparation system is used to create and design a multi-page document, then new structural elements may appear in the text: headers, footnotes, bookmarks, cross
Printing a Document
Printing a document is usually one of the main purposes of creating a document. The technologies of the printing process are constantly being improved, which makes it possible to obtain a "hard" copy of the
Creating a document template
Modern information technologies actively use the idea of saving not only a specific result of work in the form of a document, but also a set of actions (one might say a program
Working with large documents
A “large” document in the system for preparing text documents is understood as a document that has not only (and not so much) a large volume, but also a complex structure. This class includes various
Desktop publishing systems
The advent of desktop publishing systems (NIS) was made possible by three events: Apple Computer introduced the LaserWriter printer; Adobe Systems has included an op language
SPTD Development Trends
Today, word processors are increasingly included in the new generation of applied office software systems. In addition to the SPTD package, the complex includes a spreadsheet, programs
Spreadsheet preparation
When solving various economic, financial and other tasks in management activities, it is necessary to present and process information in a tabular form in the form of various kinds.
Spreadsheet Documents
A spreadsheet document is based on the concept of a table. A table is a verbal-digital material organized in vertical columns (columns or columns) and horizontal lines, forming
Working window structure
The working window of a modern table processor consists of the following elements: 1. Title bar. The title bar contains the name of the program, the name of the current file (
Entering and editing data
After the spreadsheet processor is launched and the working window appears, the data entry mode is usually set to the cells of the table (worksheet). As already mentioned, one of the cells is current or current.
Formatting table elements
For the correct design of the table in accordance with certain requirements for individual elements (objects) of the table, various format parameters can be set. Cell Format
The entire history of computer technology can be represented as the development of two main areas of its use: for solving complex mathematical calculations, the implementation of which is impossible
Databases
1. Data management in external memory. The function of managing data in external memory includes providing the necessary external memory structures for both direct storage of data
Typical organization of a modern DBMS
The organization of a typical DBMS and the composition of its components corresponds to a set of functions. Logically, in a modern DBMS, one can single out the internal part - the DBMS kernel (Data Base Engine), compiled
Databases
Functionality data models become available to DBMS users thanks to its language tools. In this case, we are talking about DBMS users, including
QBE language
This is a language that belongs to the class of high-level database management languages and provides the user with a convenient and unified interface for performing database maintenance operations.
SQL language
By itself, data in computer form is of no interest to the user if there are no means of accessing it. Access is carried out in the form of requests that are formulated in a standard
Database management systems
Database management systems have become the main tool for storing large amounts of information. Modern information applications are based, as already mentioned
Access control
Access control is based on the implementation of the following minimum set of actions: arbitrary access control; securing the reuse of objects;
Integrity Support
Ensuring data integrity is no less important than access control. From the point of view of DBMS users, the main means of maintaining data integrity are restrictions and rights.
Logging and auditing
Such a measure as logging and auditing consists in the following: detection of unusual and suspicious user actions and identification of persons who committed these actions; estimate
Protecting communications between client and server
The problem of protecting communications between a client and a server in information systems is not specific to a DBMS. To ensure the protection of information, a security service is allocated, in the function of which
Distributed data processing systems
The need for shared data in recent times more and more increases. This has led to an increasing focus on various distributed processing systems.
Distributed databases
The DBMS and the centralization of information processing made it possible to eliminate such shortcomings of traditional file systems, such as disconnection, inconsistency, and data redundancy. As databases grow and
Independence from the central node
In an ideal system, all nodes are equal and independent, and the databases located on them are equal suppliers of data to the common data space. Database on each of the self-hosted nodes
Location Transparency
This property means full transparency of data location. The user accessing DDB should not know anything about the real, physical location of data in the nodes of the information system. All
Distributed transaction processing
This quality of DDB can be interpreted as the ability to perform updates to a distributed database (INSERT, UPDATE, DELETE) without destroying the integrity and consistency of data. This goal
Database Independence
This quality means that DBMS of different manufacturers can peacefully coexist in a distributed system and search and update operations are possible in databases of various models and formats.
next generation
Being the main fundamental means of building information systems used in production, business, etc. scientific activities, databases and systems for managing them
Systems
In documentary information retrieval systems - DIPS (they are also called bibliographic) the search for a document occurs according to a brief formalized description of its content - the so-called
Information retrieval languages
For communication between a person and a computer, special artificial languages are being developed, natural language (NL) in this capacity cannot yet be used without a special preliminary
Descriptor Information Retrieval Languages
Descriptor languages are semantically stronger than classificatory languages, but more difficult to formally process. Descriptor - keyword or a phrase serving them
Information retrieval thesaurus
There are two possible ways of arranging words in dictionaries: according to the proximity of their letter composition and according to semantic proximity. According to the first method, alphabetic dictionaries are created. On the second from
Forming requests in them
In DIPS, the search for documents occurs by viewing the search image of the document. This organization of document search has its advantages and disadvantages. Submissions
documentary information
Document indexing is the procedure for displaying the text of a document in a specific form intended for automatic processing (document index). Distinguish manual
Arrays in IPS
The central part of each IS is the information retrieval array (IPM), which can be organized in various ways. In DIPS, the IPM is divided into two parts: the docum itself
Hypertext technologies for documentary information search
Hypertext (non-linear text) is the organization of text information, in which the text is a set of fragments with explicitly indicated associative links between these fragments.
Workflow automation systems
Workflow automation consists in the complex automation of the tasks of developing, coordinating, distributing, searching and archiving documents of an organization. Constantly taken away
and expert systems
The development of knowledge-based systems is integral part research on artificial intelligence and has the goal of creating computer methods for solving problems, usually three
Characteristics of an expert system
Consider the characteristics of an expert system in more detail. The core of the expert system is the knowledge base, which is created and accumulated in the process of its construction. Knowledge ex
Knowledge and models of their representation
For artificial intelligence professionals, the term "knowledge" refers to the information that a program needs in order for it to behave "intelligently". Functioning
Logical models of knowledge representation
The main idea of the logical approach is to consider the entire knowledge system necessary for solving applied problems and organizing computer interaction with the user.
Network Models of Knowledge Representation
Models of this type are based on a construction, previously called the semantic network. Network models can be formally defined as H =< I, С1, С2,
Frame apparatus (frames for knowledge representation)
One of the varieties of the apparatus of semantic networks is associated with the concept of a frame. A frame can be viewed as a fragment of a semantic network designed to describe an object (sieve).
Production models
Productions, along with frames, are the most popular means of representing knowledge in knowledge-based systems. Products, on the one hand, are close to the logical model
expert systems
The process of creating expert systems has undergone significant changes over the past few years. Thanks to the advent of special tools (IS), the construction of ES has reduced
Knowledge engineering
As already noted, the technology of building expert systems is often called knowledge engineering. As a rule, this process requires a specific form of interaction between the creator of the expert
Expert systems development methodology
Development (design) of ES differs significantly from the development of a conventional software product. The experience of developing early ES has shown that the use of a methodology in their development
Work with documents
Textbook Editor B,I. Osipov Proofreader M.V. Litvinova Computer layout O.N. Emelyanova Khudozh
