Basic definitions. Temperature field - a set of temperature values ​​at all points of the body at a given time

Semantic field - a set of linguistic units united by some common (integral) semantic feature; in other words, having some common nontrivial value component. Initially, the role of such lexical units was considered as units of the lexical level - words; later, descriptions of semantic fields appeared in linguistic works, including also phrases and sentences.

One of the classic examples of a semantic field is a color naming field consisting of several color ranges ( red– pink – pinkish – crimson; blue – blue – bluish –turquoise etc.): the common semantic component here is "color".

The semantic field has the following main properties:

1. The semantic field is intuitively understandable to a native speaker and has a psychological reality for him.

2. The semantic field is autonomous and can be singled out as an independent language subsystem.

3. The units of the semantic field are connected by certain systemic semantic relations.

4. Each semantic field is connected with other semantic fields of the language and together with them forms a language system.

The field stands out nucleus, which expresses the integral seme (archiseme) and organizes the rest around itself. For example, field - human body parts: head, hand, heart- the core, the rest are less important.

The theory of semantic fields is based on the idea of ​​the existence of certain semantic groups in the language and the possibility of the occurrence of language units in one or more such groups. In particular, the vocabulary of a language (lexicon) can be represented as a set of separate groups of words united by various relationships: synonymous (boast - brag), antonymous (speak - be silent), etc.

The elements of a separate semantic field are connected by regular and systemic relations, and, consequently, all the words of the field are mutually opposed to each other. Semantic fields may intersect or completely enter one into the other. The meaning of each word is most fully determined only if the meanings of other words from the same field are known.

A single linguistic unit can have several meanings and, therefore, can be assigned to different semantic fields. For example, the adjective red can be included in the semantic field of color designations and at the same time in the field, the units of which are united by the generalized meaning "revolutionary".

The simplest kind of semantic field is field of paradigmatic type, the units of which are lexemes belonging to the same part of speech and united by a common categorical seme in meaning, between units of such a field of connection of a paradigmatic type (synonymous, antonymic, genus-species, etc.). Such fields are often also called semantic classes or lexico-semantic groups. An example of a minimal semantic field of a paradigmatic type is a synonymous group, for example, the group verbs of speech. This field is formed by verbs talk, tell, talk, talk and others. The elements of the semantic field of verbs of speech are united by the integral semantic sign of "speaking", but their meaning not identical.

The lexical system is most fully and adequately reflected in the semantic field - a lexical category of a higher order. Semantic field - it is a hierarchical structure of a set of lexical units united by a common (invariant) meaning. Lexical units are included in a certain SP on the basis that they contain the archiseme that unites them. The field is characterized by a homogeneous conceptual content of its units, so its elements are usually not words that correlate their meanings with different concepts, but lexico-semantic variants.

The entire vocabulary can be represented as a hierarchy of semantic fields of different ranks: large semantic spheres of vocabulary are divided into classes, classes into subclasses, etc., up to elementary semantic microfields. The elementary semantic microfield is lexico-semantic group(LSG) is a relatively closed series of lexical units of one part of speech, united by an archiseme of a more specific content and a hierarchically lower order than the archiseme of the field. The most important structuring relation of elements in the semantic field is hyponymy - its hierarchical system based on genus-species relations. Words corresponding to specific concepts act as hyponyms in relation to the word corresponding to the generic concept - their hypernym, and as cohyponyms in relation to each other.

The semantic field as such includes words of different parts of speech. Therefore, the units of the field are characterized not only by syntagmatic and paradigmatic, but also by associative-derivational relations. SP units can be included in all types of semantic categorical relations (hyponymy, synonymy, antonymy, conversion, derivational derivation, polysemy). Of course, not every word by its nature enters into any of these semantic relations. Despite the great diversity in the organization of semantic fields and the specifics of each of them, we can talk about a certain structure of the joint venture, which implies the presence of its core, center and periphery (“transfer” - the core, “donate, sell” - the center, “build, cleanse” - periphery).

The word appears in the SP in all its characteristic connections and various relationships that actually exist in the lexical system of the language.

Social structure - closed or bounded (they also say: countable) set. The number of substructures and the number of elements in it is limited. Social field - an infinite uncountable set. It is created not by the number of elements, but by the number of relationships and connections between them, and they are endless. Moreover, this number changes infinitely in every second of time. II. Bourdieu explains: "As I have pointed out... the field is the relationship of forces and the space of the struggle for the transformation of this totality of forces. In other words, there is competition in the field for the legitimate appropriation of what is the stake of the struggle in this field. And within the very zero of journalism, there is naturally, constant competition for the appropriation of the public, as well as for the appropriation of what should attract the public, i.e. priority for information, for scoop, for exclusives, as well as for distinctive rarities, famous names, etc. ".

The term "field" is understood by him as a relatively closed and autonomous system of social relations, i.e. it is a kind of social subspace.

Topos is a common place. In the Middle Ages, this term was used in the meaning of "the prototype of visible things." In modern mathematics, a topos is a space with a variable topology. Topology in mathematics is a skill about objects that do not change when their shape is constantly twisted or stretched. Dimensions and proportions make no sense in topology. A small oval is equal to a huge circle.

Bourdieu's first models of the social field were the intellectual, literary and religious fields. Later, other areas of the social space were added to them - politics, economics, science, sports, family.

Separate agents, groups of agents, classes and spheres of society (political, economic, religious, etc.), identified by certain properties, constitute subfields in social space. If these properties are considered not only as frozen characteristics, say, religion or level of education, but as some kind of active properties, namely social actions and interactions, then the subfields turn into fields of power. The concepts of force and interaction, which include rivalry, "practical solidarity", exchange, direct contacts and other actions, transfer the theory from the category of substantive to the category field theories.

Field Theory: A History of the Question. Field theories are most fully represented by two sciences - physics and psychology. The concept of force is based on the classical physics Newton. Faraday and Maxwell, having studied the effects of the forces of electricity and magnetism, introduced the concept of a force field and were the first to go beyond Newton's physics. The state capable of generating force has been called field. The field creates each charge, regardless of the presence of an opposite charge that can experience its effects. This discovery significantly changed the idea of ​​physical reality. Newton believed that forces are closely related to the bodies between which they act. Now, the place of the concept of force was taken by a more complex concept of the field, which correlated with certain natural phenomena and had no correspondence in the world of mechanics. The pinnacle of this theory, called electrodynamics, was the realization that light is nothing but a high-frequency alternating electromagnetic field moving through space in the form of waves. Today we know that radio waves, visible light waves, and X-rays are nothing but oscillating electromagnetic fields, differing only in the frequency of oscillations. Einstein went even further, stating that the ether does not exist, and that electromagnetic fields have their own physical nature, can move in empty space and are not phenomena from the field of mechanics. General theory Einstein's theory of relativity claimed that three-dimensional space is really curved under the influence of the gravitational field of bodies with a large mass. Quantum theory has expanded our understanding of space. Quantum theory describes observable systems in terms of probabilities. This means that we can never say exactly where a subatomic particle will be at a certain moment and how this or that atomic process will occur. The experiments of the last decades have revealed the dynamic essence of the world of particles. Any particle can be transformed into another; energy can be converted into particles, and vice versa. In this world, such concepts of classical physics as "elementary particle", "material substance" and "isolated object" are meaningless. The Universe is a mobile network of inseparably connected energy processes. A comprehensive theory for describing subatomic reality has not yet been found, but already now there are several models that describe certain aspects of it quite satisfactorily.

Field theory is also psychological direction, formed under the influence of the ideas of the German-American scientist Kurt Lewin(1890–1947). Since 1933, having emigrated to the United States, he developed the concept of personality (based on the concept of a field borrowed from physics) as a unity of personality and its environment. To build a model of the personality structure and its interactions with the environment, the language of topology was used, a section of geometry in which mutual arrangement shapes and distances between their elements. Since then, the zero theory of Levin and his followers has acquired a second name - topological, or vector, psychology. She claims that psychic energy is transferred from the personality to the surrounding objects, which, because of this, acquire a certain valency and begin to attract or repel it, to cause locomotion. When such behavior collides with insurmountable barriers, the transition of mental energy to other personal systems associated with other activities occurs, a substitution occurs. The integral structure of the human psyche appears as a personality taken with its psychological environment, on the border between which there are perceptual and motor systems. At the heart of human behavior, Levin believed, is a force that has a direction and can be represented by a vector. The concept of a vector field used by K. Levin means an area, at each point P which is given a vector a(P). Many physical phenomena and processes lead to the concept of a vector field (for example, the velocity vectors of particles of a moving fluid at each moment of time form a vector field). Lewin attached particular importance to cognitive power, which is restructured in the course of the implementation of behavior.

concept fields plays no lesser role in P. Bourdieu than the category of space. He interprets space as a field of forces, or rather as a set of objective relations of forces that are imposed on everyone entering it, and which are irreducible to the intentions of individual agents, as well as to their interaction. In other words, the concept of the social field is subject to the well-known principle from systems theory "the whole is not reduced to the sum of its parts."

Indeed, the behavior of each of us is forcibly influenced by such forces as the power of money, the traditions of the environment, the level and profile of education. We may not want their impact on us, but we cannot disobey them. They have an objective character, and their configuration and vectors are formed somewhere above us and behind our backs. Politic system society is beyond our control, we have almost no influence on it, our vote in elections is a microscopically insignificant quantity. Political parties, as well as large corporations, negotiate behind our backs and create such a configuration of influence vectors that is beneficial only to them, but which forces us to obey this objective force.

Based on the teachings of P. Bourdieu, modern sociologists distinguish the following properties of the social field (Table 14.1).

The social field of P. Bourdieu is a multidimensional space of positions, each of which is determined by a set of variables depending on one or another type of capital (or their combination).

Table 14.1

Properties and signs of the social field

social field- the historically emerging interaction of social forces, the carriers of which can be individual agents, groups, organizations, resources, capitals, expressing themselves through the nature of the social relations that develop between them (influence, domination, pressure, subordination, competition, etc.). Field agents interact according to certain rules, occupying a strictly designated place in the social space.

If we take a closer look at the definition of the social field, we will notice its difference from the definition of social structure. It turns out that in the social field there are elements that were not in the social structure, namely, in addition to people and statuses, there are resources and capitals. In other words, the social field is more heterogeneous. It has physical components.

Field approach depicts social reality as a dynamic, internally interconnected, mobile whole.

Each field has its own bid -"the imposition of a legitimate vision of the social world". This is especially true of the so-called experts, who in all disputes consider themselves right and dictate their opinion as the only correct one. Politicians consider themselves experts in public affairs and judge everything categorically, the elders believe that, having lived a long life, they have the right to advise the young on how they should behave in a given situation. Scientists dominate the profane, the locals look arrogantly at visitors. "The bet in the discussion of two politicians attacking each other with numbers is to present their vision political world as justified: based on objectivity, insofar as it has real referents, and rooted in social reality, insofar as it is confirmed by those who take it personally and defend it"

temperature field- a set of temperature values ​​at all points of the body at a given time. Mathematically, it is described as

where x, y, z- spatial coordinates;

t- the time of the thermal process.

There are two characteristic cases of the temperature state of the body:

1. At each point of the body, the temperature remains unchanged in time, i.e.

In this case, the temperature at different points of the body can be the same or different. The temperature state of the body, unchanged in time, is called stationary (steady). In this state of the body, the heat input is equal to its consumption.

Under stationary thermal conditions, the masonry of a blast furnace, continuous thermal and heating furnaces, and recuperators work. The heating time of the furnace to the operating temperature in these devices is negligible compared to the operating time of the furnace at a given temperature.

2. When a body is heated or cooled, the temperature at each point of it continuously changes in time. Such a temperature state of the body, in which the temperature is a function of both coordinates and time, is called non-stationary (unsteady). In this mode, the laying of batch furnaces (bogie hearth furnaces, heating wells, open-hearth furnaces), as well as the packing of regenerators, works.

If the body temperature changes only along one spatial coordinate, the temperature field is called one-dimensional.

temperature gradient- the limit of the ratio of the temperature increment between two isotherms to the distance between them, measured along the normal.

(37)

heat flow- the amount of heat transferred per unit of time ( Q, W) across the entire surface.

Vector grad t is considered positive if it is directed in the direction of increasing temperature, and the heat flux vector Q is positive if it is in the direction of decreasing temperature.

If the heat flux is attributed to the surface unit, then we obtain the heat flux density, W/m 2 .

Receptive fields size: d=10 µm or 0.01 mm - outside the central fossa.

Rice. 25. Synaptic connections in the retina ( scheme according to E. Boycott, J. Dowling): 1 - pigment layer;

2 - sticks; 3 - cones; 4 - zone of location of the outer boundary membrane; 5 - horizontal cells; 6 - bipolar cells; 7 - amacrine cells; 8 - glia

(Mullerian fiber); 9 - ganglionic cells; 10 - zone of location of the inner boundary membrane; 11 - synapses between photoreceptors, bipolar and horizontal neurons in the outer reticular layer; 12 - synapses between bipolar, amacrine and ganglion cells in the inner reticular layer.

In the very hole d=2.5 µm (due to this, we are able to distinguish between two points with an apparent distance between them of only 0.5 arc minutes-2.5 microns - if we compare, this is a 5 kopeck coin at a distance of about 150 meters).

Starting from the level of bipolar cells, the neurons of the visual system differentiate into two groups (Fig. 26), which react in opposite ways to illumination and darkening:

1 - cells that are excited when illuminated and inhibited when darkened - "on"-neurons and

2 - cells, Excited by darkness and inhibited by illumination - "off"-neurons.

An on-center cell discharges at a markedly increased frequency. If you listen to the discharges of such a cell through a loudspeaker, then at first you will hear spontaneous impulses, separate random clicks, and then after turning on the light, a volley of impulses occurs, reminiscent of a machine-gun burst.

On the contrary, in cells with an off-reaction (when the light is turned off - a volley of impulses). This division is maintained at all levels of the visual system, up to and including the cortex.

Rice. 26. Concentric receptive fields (RP) of two ganglion cells.

Inhibitory zones of receptive fields are shaded. Reactions to turning on (1 and 4) and turning off (2 and 3) light are shown during stimulation of the RP center (1 and 3) and its periphery (2 and 4) with a light spot.

BUT - "on"-neurons

B - "off"-neurons

Within the retina itself, information is transmitted impulseless way (distribution and transsynaptic transmission of gradual potentials).

In horizontal, bipolar, and amacrine cells, signal processing occurs through slow changes in membrane potentials (tonic response). PD is not generated.

Rod, cone, and horizontal cell responses are hyperpolarizing, while bipolar cell responses can be either hyperpolarizing or depolarizing. Amacrine cells create depolarizing potentials.

To understand why this is so, one must imagine the influence of a small bright spot. The receptors are active in the dark, and light, causing hyperpolarization, reduces their activity. If a the synapse is excitatory, the bipolar will be activated in the dark, a become inactivated in the light; if the synapse is inhibitory, the bipolar is inhibited in the dark, and in the light, turning off the receptor, removes this inhibition, i.e. bipolar cell is activated. Thus, whether the receptor-bipolar synapse is excitatory or inhibitory depends on the mediator secreted by the receptor.

Horizontal cells are involved in the transmission of signals from bipolar cells to ganglion cells, which transmit information from photoreceptors to bipolar cells and then to ganglion cells.

Horizontal cells respond to light with hyperpolarization with pronounced spatial summation. Horizontal cells do not generate nerve impulses, but the membrane has non-linear properties that ensure impulse-free signal transmission without attenuation.

Cells are divided into two types: B and C. B-type cells, or luminosity, always respond with hyperpolarization, regardless of the wavelength of light. C-type cells, or chromatic cells, are divided into two- and three-phase. Chromatic cells respond with either hyper- or depolarization depending on the length of the stimulating light.

Biphasic cells are either red-green (depolarized with red light, hyperpolarized with green) or green-blue (depolarized with green light, hyperpolarized with blue). Triphasic cells are depolarized by green light, and blue and red light cause membrane hyperpolarization.

amacrine cells, regulate synaptic transmission in the next step from bipolars to ganglion cells. The dendrites of amacrine cells branch into inner layer, where they contact with the processes of bipolars and dendrites of ganglion cells. Centrifugal fibers coming from the brain terminate on amacrine cells.

Amacrine cells generate gradual and pulse potentials (phasic nature of the response). These cells respond with rapid depolarization to light on and off, and show little spatial antagonism between center and periphery.