Name: The human nervous system. Structure and violations. Atlas.
Astapov V.M., Mikadze Yu.V.
The year of publishing: 2004
The size: 13.36 MB
Format: pdf
Language: Russian
In this atlas, in the first section, beautifully executed illustrations are presented from a number of works by domestic and foreign authors on the structure nervous system person. The second section demonstrates models of higher mental functions and examples of their impairments in local brain lesions. The atlas is designed to be used as a visual aid in the study of disciplines that consider the issues of the structure of the NS and the higher mental activity of a person.
Name: Neurology. National leadership. 2nd edition
Gusev E.I., Konovalov A.N., Skvortsova V.I.
The year of publishing: 2018
The size: 24.08 MB
Format: pdf
Language: Russian
Description: The National Manual "Neurology" in its 2nd edition in 2018 is supplemented with up-to-date information. The book "Neurology. National leadership" contains three sections, where the modern level describes ... Download the book for free
Name: Backache.
Podchufarova E.V., Yakhno N.N.
The year of publishing: 2013
The size: 4.62 MB
Format: pdf
Language: Russian
Description: The book "Back Pain" deals with such an important medical aspect of neurology as back pain. The guide discusses the epidemiology of back pain, risk factors, morphofunctional bases of pain in the... Download the book for free
Name: Neurology. National leadership. Short edition.
Gusev E.I., Konovalov A.N., Gekht A.B.
The year of publishing: 2018
The size: 4.29 MB
Format: pdf
Language: Russian
Description: The book "Neurology. National leadership. Brief edition" edited by E.I. Guseva with co-authors considers the basic issues of neurology, where neurological syndromes are considered (pain, meninge... Download the book for free
Name: amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
Zavalishin I.A.
The year of publishing: 2009
The size: 19.9 MB
Format: pdf
Language: Russian
Description: The book "Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis" ed., Zavalishina I.A., considers topical issues of this pathology from the perspective of a neurologist. The issues of epidemiology, etiopathogenesis, clinical ... Download the book for free
Name: Headache. Guide for doctors. 2nd edition.
Tabeeva G.R.
The year of publishing: 2018
The size: 6.14 MB
Format: pdf
Language: Russian
Description: The presented guide "Headache" considers topical issues of the topic, highlighting such aspects of the cephalgic syndrome as the classification of headache, management of patients with headache ... Download the book for free
Name: Manual therapy in vertebroneurology.
Gubenko V.P.
The year of publishing: 2003
The size: 18.16 MB
Format: pdf
Language: Russian
Description: The book "Manual Therapy in Vertebroneurology" considers general issues of manual therapy, describes the technique of manual examination, clinical and diagnostic aspects of osteochondrosis and vertebrogenic ... Download the book for free
Name: Neurology for General Practitioners
Ginsberg L.
The year of publishing: 2013
The size: 11.41 MB
Format: pdf
Language: Russian
Description: The practical guide "Neurology for General Practitioners" edited by Ginsberg L. examines neurological semiotics and neurological disorders in clinical practice in detail. Imagine ... Download the book for free
Name: Pediatric behavioral neurology. Volume 2. 2nd edition.
Nyokiktien Ch., Zavadenko N.N.
The year of publishing: 2012
The size: 1.7 MB
Format: pdf
Language: Russian
Description: Presented book "Children's Behavioral Neurology. Volume 2. 2nd edition" by Charles Nyokiktien, edited by Zavadenko N.N. is the final edition of the two-volume study of the development and distur...
Atlas: human anatomy and physiology. Complete practical guide Elena Yurievna Zigalova
central nervous system
central nervous system
Spinal cord
The spinal cord is located in the spinal canal. This is a long strand of almost cylindrical shape, which, at the level of the upper edge of the first cervical vertebra (atlas), passes into the medulla oblongata, and below, at the level of the II lumbar vertebra, ends in a cerebral cone. The length of the spinal cord is on average 42–43 cm, weight 34–38 g. There are two thickenings along the course of the spinal cord: cervical (at the level from the III cervical to III thoracic vertebrae) and lumbosacral (from the X thoracic to the II lumbar vertebrae). In these zones, the number of nerve cells and fibers is increased due to the fact that it is here that the nerves innervating the limbs originate. The spinal cord is divided into two symmetrical halves. On the lateral surfaces of the spinal cord symmetrically enter rear(afferent) and exit front(efferent) roots spinal nerves. The lines of entry and exit of the roots divide each half into three cords of the spinal cord (anterior, lateral and posterior). The area of the spinal cord corresponding to each pair of roots is called segment(rice. 66). The segments are indicated by Latin letters indicating the area: C (cervical), T (thoracic), L (lumbar), S (sacral) and Co (coccygeal). A number is placed next to the letter indicating the number of the segment of this area, for example, T 1 I - the thoracic segment, S 2 II - the sacral segment. Parts are distinguished in the spinal cord: cervical (I-VIII segments), its lower border in an adult is the seventh cervical vertebra; thoracic (I-XII segments), the lower limit in an adult is the X or XI thoracic vertebra; lumbar (I-V segments), the lower border is located at the level of the lower edge of the XI upper edge of the XII thoracic vertebra; sacral (IV–V segments), lower border at the level of the 1st lumbar vertebra; coccygeal (I-III segments), which ends at the level of the lower edge of the I lumbar vertebra.
The spinal cord consists of gray matter located inside and surrounding it on all sides of the white matter ( see fig. 66). On a transverse section of the spinal cord, the gray matter looks like a figure of a flying butterfly in the center of which there is a central canal filled with cerebrospinal fluid. AT gray matter distinguish between anterior and posterior columns. There are also lateral columns extending from the I thoracic to the II–III lumbar segments. On the cross section of the spinal cord, the columns are represented by the corresponding horns anterior, posterior, and in the thoracic region and at the level of the two upper lumbar segments by the lateral ones. The gray matter is formed by multi-branched (multipolar) neurons, non-myelinated and thin myelinated fibers and clay cells.
Cells that have the same structure and perform similar functions form the nuclei of gray matter. AT back pillars sensitive nuclei are located. AT front pillars very large (100–140 μm in diameter) radicular neurons lie down, forming motor somatic centers. AT side pillars there are groups of small neurons that form the centers of the sympathetic part of the autonomic nervous system. Their axons pass through the anterior horn and, together with the axons of the radicular neurons of the anterior columns, form the anterior roots of the spinal nerves. The white matter of the spinal cord is formed mainly by myelin fibers running longitudinally. The bundles of nerve fibers that connect different parts of the nervous system are called the pathways of the spinal cord.
Let us consider the reflex arc and the reflex act as the basic principle of the activity of the nervous system. Simple reflexes are carried out through the spinal cord. The simplest reflex arc consists of two neurons - sensory and motor. The body of the first neuron (afferent) is located in the spinal, or sensitive - node of the cranial nerve. The dendrite of this cell is sent as part of the corresponding spinal or cranial nerve to the periphery, where it ends with a receptor apparatus that perceives irritation. In the receptor, the energy of an external or internal stimulus is processed into a nerve impulse.
Rice. 66. Spinal cord (transverse section) and reflex arc. A - posterior median sulcus, B - white matter, C - posterior horn, D - posterior root, D - spinal ganglion, E - lateral horn, G - anterior root, 3 - anterior horn, I - anterior median fissure; 1 - intercalary neuron, 2 - afferent nerve fiber, 3 - efferent nerve fiber, 4 - gray branch, 5 - white branch, 6 - node of the sympathetic trunk, 7 - neurosecretory ending
The impulse is transmitted along the nerve fiber to the body of the nerve cell, and then along the axon, which is part of the posterior (sensitive) root of the spinal cord or the corresponding root of the cranial nerve, follows to the spinal cord or brain. In the gray matter of the spinal cord or in the nuclei of the brain, this process of the sensitive cell forms a synapse with the body of the second (efferent) neuron. Its axon leaves the spinal (brain) cord as part of the anterior (motor) roots of the spinal or corresponding cranial nerve and goes to the working organ. Most often, the reflex arc consists of many neurons. Then intercalary neurons are located between afferent and efferent neurons ( see fig. 66).
This text is an introductory piece.Central nervous system Anterior median fissure of the spinal cord - fissura mediana anterior medullae spinalis Posterior median groove of the spinal cord - sulcus medianus posterior medullae spinalis Anterior cord of the spinal cord (in section or on the whole brain) - funiculus anterior medullae spinalis
Nervous system The nervous system controls the activity of various organs and systems that make up an integral organism, communicates it with the external environment, and also coordinates the processes occurring in the body, ensures the connection of all its parts into a single whole,
Central Nervous System Spinal Cord The spinal cord is located in the spinal canal. This is a long strand of almost cylindrical shape, which at the level of the upper edge of the first cervical vertebra (atlas) passes into the medulla oblongata, and below at the level of the II lumbar
Nervous system as a system of power The problem of power and organization is the main problem in the activity of the nervous system. The tasks of this system are reduced to the organization and management of processes occurring inside the organism and between the organism and its environment. That fact,
Central Nervous System The most amazing and amazing thing on earth is the human brain. This pinkish-grayish substance is the controlling organ of our entire body and regulates literally everything: our thoughts, decisions, emotions, hearing, movements, speech, memory,
The nervous system In addition to its specific functions, the body of the nerve cell must ensure the integration and continuous renewal of its cytoplasm, up to the end of the axon and dendrites. The nerve cell must also renew the contents of the nerve trunks, length
Nervous system The vital activity of all body systems and their parts is regulated and coordinated by the nervous system. Its essential role is to ensure the functional unity and integrity of the organism. It determines the interaction between the body and
Nervous system Wind is the cause of all diseases. "Chzhud-Shi", Tantra of Explanations From the point of view of Tibetan medicine, the state of health and human life depend on three regulatory systems of the body, or constitutions (doshas): Mucus, Bile, Wind. Slime constitution responds
NERVOUS SYSTEM
NERVOUS SYSTEM Sexual life is an extraordinarily complex process, and it is very difficult to characterize its component parts separately. Nevertheless, I will try to do this so that the problems discussed are more understandable. In the physiology of sexual intercourse, the main elements
Nervous system You can rephrase the saying in relation to the topic under consideration as follows: “The brains told us: “We must!”, The spinal cord answered: “Yes!”. The spinal cord and brain are the guiding and guiding force of all processes occurring in
Nervous system The nervous system unites (integrates) all the structures of the human body into a single holistic organism. It is thanks to integration (from Latin integratio - replenishment, integer - whole) that the nervous system regulates all functions, controls movements,
Curricula" href="/text/category/uchebnie_programmi/" rel="bookmark"> of the curriculum for the course "CNS Anatomy" and distributed sequentially by topic.
Each control task corresponds to one or more drawings located in the second section of each subject task.
To complete tasks on the anatomy of the central nervous system, it is first necessary to work out the proposed basic and additional literature on the subject, including lectures. Then, on the "blind" drawings of this manual, you need to complete the tasks indicated in the first part of this manual
The advantage of working with this manual compared to other forms of work
(seminars, abstract reports, colloquia) lies in the fact that the use of such a methodological manual makes it possible for each student to independently study and visually verify the correctness of the assimilation of the studied material and prepare for a control check of the acquired knowledge by the teacher.
Doctor of Biological Sciences,
Professor
ANATOMY
CENTRAL NERVOUS SYSTEM
Topic 1. The decisive role of the nervous system in the morphological and physiological development of the organism…………………………………
Topic 2 Nervous tissue………………………………………………………
Topic 3. The general plan of the structure of the nervous system……………………….
Theme 4. Morphological substrate of the reflex as the basic principle of the nervous system………………………………………………………………
Theme 5. The membranes of the spinal cord and brain………………………….
Topic 6. Central nervous system……………………………………
Theme 7. Reticular formation………………………………………….
Topic 8. Limbic system……………………………………………..
Theme 9. Autonomic (autonomous) nervous system…………………….
Topic 10. Development of the nervous system………………………………………
Applications………………………………………………………………
Topic 1. The decisive role of the nervous system in the morphological and physiological development of the organism
Test questions:
1. What is the importance of the nervous system in the life of the organism?
2. Due to what elements of the nervous system is coordination of functions in the body carried out?
3. Why is there an improvement in the nervous system from lower animals to higher ones, and to humans?
4. How does the human nervous system differ from the nervous system of other mammals?
5. Why is the brain called "social matter"?
Topic 2. Nervous tissue
Control task No. 1
Study the diagram of the structure of the nervous tissue (Fig. 1).
1. Neurons.
2. Axons covered with myelin sheaths.
3. Synaptic endings.
4. Unmyelinated fiber.
5. Astrocyte (neuroglial cell that performs a trophic function).
6. Oligodendrocyte (neuroglial cell involved in the formation of the myelin sheath).
7. Dendrites of a neuron.
8. Blood vessel.
Control task No. 2
Study the structure of neurons and synapses (Fig. 2).
In this figure, mark the following formations with numbers:
Figure 2(a)
1. Granular neurons.
2. Pyramidal neurons.
3. Star-shaped neurons.
4. Fusiform neurons.
Figure 2(b)
1. The body of a neuron.
3. Nucleolus.
4. Mitochondria.
5. Dendrites.
7. Myelin sheath.
Figure 2(c)
12. Axo-somatic synapse.
13. Axo-dendritic synapses.
test questions
1. What is a neuron? What are the features of its structure?
2. What are the processes of a neuron called? What function do they perform?
3. What types of CNS neurons are divided into?
4. Through what formations are neurons interconnected?
5. What is part of the synapse?
6. What is gray and white matter in the central nervous system?
7. How are neurons classified according to shape?
8. What types of neurons do you know according to their functions?
9. What is the difference between a myelinated nerve fiber and an unmyelinated one?
10. What types of neuroglial cells do you know?
11. What are the functions of various neuroglial cells?
12. What is the peculiarity of microglia?
Topic 3. General plan of the structure of the nervous system
Control task No. 3
Study the scheme general plan structures of the nervous system (Fig. 3). In this figure, mark the following formations with numbers:
Central nervous system.
1. Brain (central nervous system)
2. Spinal cord (central nervous system) and departments related to the peripheral nervous system.
Peripheral nervous system.
1. Cervical plexus.
2. Brachial plexus.
3. Lumbar plexus.
4. sacral plexus.
5. Nerves running from the sacral plexus to the muscles of the lower limb.
6. Nerves running from the brachial plexus to the muscles of the upper limb.
7. Nerves running from the lumbar plexus to the muscles of the lower limb.
8. Nerve from the sacral plexus to the muscles of the lower limb.
test questions
1. Which formations belong to the central nervous system, and which - to the peripheral?
2. What parts of the body are supplied with nerves from the somatic nervous system and which parts from the autonomic nervous system?
3. From what plexuses do the nerves that innervate the muscles of the upper and lower limbs originate?
Topic 4. Morphological substratum of the reflex as the main principle of the nervous system
Control task number 4
Study the structure of the reflex arcs of the somatic and autonomic nervous system (Fig. 4). In this figure, mark the following formations with numbers:
1. The body of an afferent (sensitive) neuron.
2. Dendrite of an afferent neuron.
3. Receptor.
4. Axon of an afferent neuron.
5. The body of the efferent (motor) neuron.
6. Dendrites of an efferent neuron.
7. Axon of an efferent neuron.
8. Body of an associative (intercalary) neuron.
9. Axon of an associative neuron.
10. Posterior root of the spinal nerve.
11. Spinal knot.
12. Anterior root of the spinal nerve.
13. Back horn.
14. Side horn.
15. Anterior horn.
16. Nodes of the sympathetic trunk.
17. White connecting branch.
18. Gray connecting branch.
19. Prevertebral node.
21. The body of the intercalary neuron of the autonomic arch.
22. The body of the effector neuron of the autonomic arc.
23. Pregantionary fiber.
24. Postganitan fiber.
test questions
1. What is a reflex?
2. What are the elements of the reflex arc? Where are the cell bodies of sensory, motor, and lateral neurons located?
3. What is a receptor?
4. Name the functions of neurons:
A) spinal nodes;
B) posterior, lateral and anterior horns of gray matter, spinal cord;
C) nodes of the autonomic nervous system.
5. What do the spinal ganglions, anterior and posterior roots, the white and gray connecting branches, and the spinal nerve consist of?
6. What is the difference between a somatic reflex arc and a vegetative one?
7. What anatomical formations contain nerve fibers from receptors to the brain and from the brain to the executive organs?
Topic 5. Shells of the spinal cord and brain
Control task No. 5
Examine the diagram of the structure of the segment of the spinal cord with membranes (Fig. 5). In this figure, mark the following formations with numbers:
1. Dura mater.
2. Spider shell.
3. Pia mater.
4. Anterior root of the spinal nerve.
5. Posterior root of the spinal nerve.
6. Spinal knot.
7. Lateral column of white matter.
8. Anterior horn of gray matter.
9. Anterior median fissure.
10. Posterior median sulcus.
11. Anterior column of white matter.
12. Posterior column of white matter.
13. Posterior horn of gray matter.
test questions
1. What do you know the membranes of the spinal cord and brain?
2. What is the function of the membranes of the spinal cord?
3. What is the subarachnoid space?
4. What is the subdural space?
5. What is the importance of cerebrospinal fluid?
Topic 6. Central nervous system.
Spinal cord.
Control task No. 6
Examine the diagram of the general view of the spinal cord (Fig. 6). In this figure, mark the following formations with numbers:
1. Cervical thickening of the spinal cord.
2. Lumbar thickening of the spinal cord.
3. Spinal nodes.
4. Spinal nerves.
5. Dura mater.
6. Posterior column of white matter.
7. End thread.
8. Ponytail.
Control task number 7
Examine the layout of the pathways on the transverse section of the spinal cord (Fig. 7). In this figure, mark the following formations with numbers.
1. Posterior median sulcus.
2. Anterior median fissure.
3. Thin beam.
4. Posterior column of white matter.
5. Anterior horn of gray matter.
6. Posterior horn of gray matter.
7. Posterior root of the spinal nerve.
8. Lateral column of white matter.
9. Anterior column of white matter.
10. Anterior dorsal and cerebellar path.
11. Posterior spinal tract.
12. Lateral corticospinal (pyramidal) path.
13. Rubrospinal path.
14. Spinal-thalamic path.
15. Vestibulospinal path.
16. Anterior corticospinal path.
17. Tectospinal path.
test questions
1. What is the segmental structure of the spinal cord?
2. What is a ponytail, what is it made of, what is the mechanism of its formation?
3. What is meant by a segment of the spinal cord (nerve segment)? How can we explain the discrepancy between the segments of the spinal cord and the number of the spine in an adult?
4. What type does the gray matter of the spinal cord have?
5. Where is the white matter of the spinal cord located?
6. Name the bundles that conduct motor impulses?
7. Name the bundles that conduct:
A) tactile sensitivity;
B) pain and temperature sensitivity.
8. C) muscular-articular sensitivity.
9. Which neurons are located in the posterior horn and which are located in the anterior horn?
10. With what functions are ascending paths associated and with what descending paths?
11. In which columns of the white matter of the spinal cord do the ascending tracts pass, and in which columns do the descending ones?
Brain. brain stem
Control task number 8
Study the diagram of the structure of the brain from below (Fig. 8). Select the following sections of the brain in the figure:
Oblong, posterior, middle, intermediate and final brain.
1. Mastoid bodies.
2. Optic tract.
3. Olfactory tract.
4. Varoliev bridge.
5. Leg of the brain.
6. Cerebellum.
7. Crossing of the pyramids.
8. Pyramidal bundle.
9. Funnel.
10. Pituitary.
11. Middle legs of the cerebellum.
I - Olfactory bulb, cranial nerve roots.
II - Optic nerve.
III - Oculomotor nerve.
IV - Block nerve.
V - Trigeminal nerve.
VI - Abducens nerve.
VII - Facial nerve.
VIII - Predverno-cochlear.
IX - Glossopharyngeal.
X - Vagus nerve.
XI - Additional.
XII - Hypoglossal nerve.
Hind brain
Control task number 9
Study the diagram of the structure of the rhomboid fossa (Fig. 9). In this figure, mark the following formations with numbers:
Figure 9
1. Median furrow.
2. Thin beam.
3. Wedge-shaped bundle.
4. The nucleus of the vestibulocochlear nerve.
5. The nucleus of the hypoglossal nerve.
6. Nucleus of the vagus nerve.
7. Anterior tubercle of the quadrigemina.
8. Posterior tubercle of the quadrigemina.
9. The nucleus of the facial nerve.
10. Blue spot.
11. The nucleus of the trochlear nerve.
12. The nucleus of the oculomotor nerve, the roots of the following cranial nerves:
IV - block.
VII - facial.
VIII - vestibulocochlear.
IX - glossopharyngeal.
X - wandering.
XI - additional.
XII - sublingual.
Cerebellum
Control task number 10
Examine the diagrams of the structure of the cerebellum (Fig. 10. I - longitudinal section, II - rear and top view, III - connections of the cerebellum with other brain structures). In this figure, mark the following formations with numbers:
I - longitudinal section:
1. Tree of Life.
2. The nucleus of the cerebellum.
4. Medulla oblongata.
5. Spinal cord.
II - rear and top view:
2. Hemispheres.
3. Places of projections of the torso, limbs and head of a person in the vermis and cerebellar hemispheres.
ІІІ - connections of the cerebellum with other structures of the brain and spinal cord:
K - the cerebral cortex.
T - thalamus.
Mo is a bridge.
P - medulla oblongata.
C - spinal cord.
1. Cerebellar-thalamic connections
2. Connections of the thalamus with the motor cortex.
3. Connections of the thalamus with the frontal cortex.
4. Connections of the thalamus with the area of general sensitivity.
5. Ascending pathways from the spinal cord to the cerebellum.
6. Descending pathways from the motor cortex.
7. Descending paths from the frontal cortex.
8. Descending paths from the area of general sensitivity to the spinal cord.
9. Branches from the pyramidal path to the cores of the bridge.
10. Bridge-cerebellar path.
test questions
1. What departments is the brain divided into?
2. What parts of the brain belong to the brain stem?
3. What departments belong to the posterior trunk?
4. Where is located and what is the bottom of the IV ventricle of the brain - the rhomboid fossa?
5. Compare the structure of the spinal cord and the brain stem. What are the differences and what is common in the structure of these parts of the central nervous system?
6. Name the cranial nerves, the nuclei of which are located in the rhomboid fossa.
7. What vital centers are located in the medulla oblongata?
8. What nerves depart from the medulla oblongata?
9. What departments does the cerebellum consist of?
10. How is the gray and white matter located in the cerebellum?
11. What nuclei of the cerebellum do you know?
12. What do you know about the "legs" of the cerebellum? What role do they play?
13. With what parts of the brain is the cerebellum connected?
14. Why is the cerebellum called the "small brain"?
15. What is the functional difference between the hemispheres and the cerebellar vermis?
Mid, diencephalon and telencephalon
Control task number 11
Study the diagrams of the structure of the diencephalon and midbrain on its longitudinal sections and the medial surface of the hemisphere (Fig. 11 and 12). On the given diagrams, indicate the following formations with numbers:
Figure 11.
1. Thalamus.
2. Leg of the brain.
4. Plumbing.
5. Medulla oblongata.
6. White matter of the cerebellar vermis.
7. Cerebellar hemisphere.
8. IV cerebral ventricle.
9. Posterior tubercles of the quadrigemina.
10. Anterior tubercles of the quadrigemina.
11. Epiphysis.
12. Corpus callosum.
13. Frontal lobe of the cerebral hemispheres.
14. Pituitary.
Figure 12.
1. Medulla oblongata.
3. Cerebellum.
4. IV cerebral ventricle.
5. White matter of the cerebellum.
6. Leg of the brain.
7. Anterior tubercles of the quadrigemina.
8. Posterior tubercles of the quadrigemina.
9. Plumbing.
10. Epiphysis.
11. Corpus callosum.
12. Frontal lobe of the cerebral hemispheres.
13. Optic tract.
14. Pituitary.
Control task number 12
Study the structure of the diencephalon and midbrain in the diagrams (Fig. 13 and Fig. 14). On these diagrams, indicate the following formations with numbers:
Figure 13.
1. Four hills.
2. Epiphysis.
3. Thalamus.
4. The pillars of the vault.
5. III cerebral ventricle.
6. Anterior soldering.
Figure 14.
1. Plumbing.
3. Four hills.
4. Tire.
5. Red core.
6. Black substance.
7. Lateral geniculate body.
8. Medial geniculate body.
9. Legs of the brain.
10. Mastoid bodies.
11. Posterior perforated substance.
12. Funnel.
13. Anterior perforated substance.
14. Chiasma.
15. Optic nerve.
16. Optic tract.
Control task number 13
Examine the structure of the first, second and third cerebral ventricles in Figure 15. Designate the following formations with numbers:
1. Thalamus.
2. III cerebral ventricle.
3. Epiphysis.
4. Four hills.
5. Middle horn of the lateral ventricle.
6. Anterior horn of the lateral ventricle.
7. Columns of the vault.
8. Anterior commissure.
9. Cerebellum.
10. The cerebral cortex.
11. White matter of the cerebral hemispheres.
test questions
1. What formations belong to the midbrain?
2. What is the functional significance of these formations?
3. What is the structure of the midbrain cavity? What other cavities of the brain is it associated with?
4. What is the red core? What is its structure and functional significance?
5. What is a quadrigemina? What functions is it associated with?
6. What formations belong to the diencephalon?
7. Why is it called that?
8. What is the functional significance of these formations?
9. What is the cavity of the diencephalon, where is it located and with what other cavities is it connected?
10. What is the hypothalamic (or subthalamic) area? What elements does it form and what is its functional significance?
11. Why do the hypothalamus and pituitary gland form a single functional complex?
Terminal brain. The cerebral cortex, white matter and basal ganglia.
Control task number 14
Study the cytoarchitectonics of the cerebral cortex according to Figure 16 and indicate the following layers of the cortex with numbers:
Layers of the bark.
I - Molecular.
II - External granular.
ІІІ - Pyramid.
ІV - Internal granular.
V - Ganglionic.
VI - Polymorphic.
Control task number 15
Examine the structure of the furrows of the cerebral hemispheres in Figures 17 and 18. In these diagrams, indicate the following formations with numbers:
Figure 17.
1. Central (Roland) furrow.
2. Precentral.
3. Postcentral.
4. Upper frontal.
5. Middle frontal.
6. Lower frontal.
7. Lateral (Sylvius) furrow.
8. Parieto-occipital.
9. Superior temporal.
10. Middle temporal.
11. Inferior temporal.
Figure 18.
1. Spur furrow.
2. Parieto-occipital.
3. Edge.
4. Parahippocampus.
5. Furrow of the corpus callosum.
Control task number 16
Study the structure of the main convolutions and lobes of the cerebral hemispheres in Figures 19 and 20. In these diagrams, indicate the following formations with numbers:
Figure 19.
The main convolutions of the outer surface of the hemisphere.
1. Precentral.
2. Postcentral.
3. Upper frontal.
4. Middle frontal.
5. Lower frontal.
6. Superior temporal.
7. Middle temporal.
8. Inferior temporal.
Main shares.
1. Frontal lobe.
2. Parietal lobe.
3. Occipital lobe.
4. Temporal lobe.
Figure 20.
The main convolutions of the inner surface of the hemisphere.
1. Upper frontal.
2. Inferior temporal.
3. Belt.
4. Hippocampus.
5. Hook.
Control task number 17
Examine the topography of the cortical center of speech (Fig. 21) and in this diagram indicate the following formations with numbers:
1. Speech-motor center.
2. The center of the letter.
3. Speech and hearing center.
4. Speech-visual center.
5. Associative fibers linking these centers into a single morpho-functional system of speech.
Control task number 18
Examine the cortical localization of sensitivity and motor centers in the region of the precentral and postcentral gyri (Fig. 22). Label the following formations:
Analyze the ratio of areas of localization of various parts of the body.
2. Shin.
3. Torso.
4. Upper limb up to the hand.
6. Upper face.
7. Lips and mouth opening.
Figure 23.
1. Thalamus.
2. Caudate nucleus.
3. Shell.
4. Pale ball.
5. The cerebral cortex.
6. Projection fibers of the white matter (corticospinal path).
7. Commissural fibers (corpus callosum).
8. Short association fibers.
9. Long association fibers.
test questions
1. What are the main parts of the forebrain?
2. What is the significance of the furrows and convolutions?
3. What are the names of the layers in the cerebral cortex?
4. Corpus callosum, its position and significance.
5. Shells of the brain. Their structure and meaning. What is in the subarachnoid, subdural and epidural spaces?
6. Ventricles of the brain. Where are they located, how do they communicate with each other, what is their significance?
7. How and where is the cerebrospinal fluid formed and in what way circulates, washing the spinal cord and brain from the inside and outside?
8. What is the functional significance of individual lobes of the cerebral hemisphere?
9. With what structures of the brain is the primary signal activity associated and with which the implementation of the second signal reactions is associated?
10. What are the accumulations of gray matter in the thickness of the hemisphere that you know? What are their names? What is their functional significance?
11. What is the similarity between the cerebral hemispheres and the cerebellum?
12. Name the convolutions and lobes of the hemisphere that are associated with the main analytical systems: cortical centers of movement, touch, smell, hearing, vision, emotions.
13. What is the functional asymmetry of the brain?
14. Which functions are mainly associated with the activity of the left hemisphere of the brain and with which - the right one.
15. Based on the functional asymmetry, what can be said about a person with dominance of the activity of the left hemisphere, and about a person with dominance of the right hemisphere of the brain? What features of mental activity will distinguish them?
16. What features of the structural and functional organization of the brain differ between "left-handers" and "right-handers"?
Topic 7. Reticular formation
Test questions:
1. What are the features of the neural organization of the reticular formation?
2. What do you know about the nuclei of the reticular formation?
3. What organs, areas of the cortex and other structures of the brain are neurons of the reticular formation associated with?
4. What is the reticulospinal tract?
Topic 8. Limbic system
test questions
1. What brain structures are included in the limbic system?
2. What is the functional significance of the limbic system?
3. With what brain structures is the limbic system connected and what are the features of its connections?
4. Why is the study of the limbic system of interest to a psychologist?
Control task number 19
Study the structure of the limbic system of the brain (Fig. 24). Label the following structures that make up the limbic system.
1. Belt gyrus.
2. Hippocampus.
3. Almond-shaped complex.
Designate also other structures of the medial surface of the hemisphere:
4. Corpus callosum.
5. Spur furrow.
6. Parieto-occipital.
7. Belt furrow.
8. Furrow of the corpus callosum.
Topic 9. Autonomic (autonomous) nervous system
Control task number 20
Study the structure of the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system (Fig. 25). On the given diagrams, indicate the following formations with numbers:
1. Sympathetic trunk.
2. Spinal nerves.
3. Central representation of the sympathetic department.
4. Sympathetic nerves to the organs of the chest cavity.
5. Sympathetic nerves going to the organs of the head.
6. Sympathetic nerves going to the abdominal organs.
7. Central representation of the parasympathetic division in the brain.
8. Parasympathetic fibers that go as part of the vagus nerve to the abdominal organs.
9. Inside the wall nodes (intramural ganglia) in the walls of the internal vessels.
10. Central representation of the parasympathetic division in the sacral part of the spinal cord.
test questions
1. What is the difference between the autonomic nervous system and the somatic?
2. What is the structure of the vegetative reflex arc and how does it differ from the somatic one?
3. What departments is the autonomic nervous system divided into and what are their differences (morphological and functional)?
4. Where is the central and peripheral parts of the sympathetic nervous system located?
5. What is the sympathetic trunk?
6. Where are the central peripheral parts of the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system located?
7. What are intramural ganglia?
8. Why does each organ receive double innervation - from the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions?
Topic 10. Development of the nervous system
test questions
1. What are the main stages in the development of the nervous system?
2. How does the brain develop?
3. How many cerebral vesicles give rise to the main parts of the brain?
4. What is the neural crest and what is its role in the formation of various parts of the nervous system?
5. What is the sequence of formation of various elements of the brain in pre - and postnatal ontogenesis?
6. How does the mass of the brain change during development?
7. At what period of development, and which furrows appear first?
8. When do secondary furrows appear, and which ones?
9. When do tertiary furrows appear, and what are their specifics?
10. What are the main stages of neuron development (soma, axon, dendrites, synapses).
11. What is the importance of the process of myelination of nerve fibers.
APPS
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Rice. 1. The structure of the nervous tissue.
Fig.10. I - Longitudinal section.
ІІ - Rear view.
ІІІ - Connections of the cerebellum with others
brain structures.
Figure #11. Brain.
medial surface.
Fig. 12. Intermediate, medium.
Medulla.
https://pandia.ru/text/79/124/images/image015_0.jpg" width="400" height="418 src=">
Rice. 14. Midbrain, subtubercular and hypotuberous surface.
Rice. 15. Cerebral ventricles.
(Corpus callosum, fornix and tegmenta
3rd ventricle removed).
The gyrus (on the left) and motor function in the precentral gyrus.
Rice. 23. Conductive bundles of the brain and spinal cord.
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Rice. 24. Limbic system of the brain.
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Rice. 25. Autonomic nervous system (scheme).
Bold lines indicate the parasympathetic region, pale lines indicate the sympathetic region, solid lines indicate preganglionic fibers, and broken lines indicate postganglionic fibers.
Rice. 26. Functional asymmetry of the right and left hemispheres of the brain. Function localization scheme.
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transcript
2 Atlas of the human nervous system structure and disorders 4th edition, revised and supplemented Edited by V.M. Astapova Yu.V. Mikaze Approved by the Ministry of Education Russian Federation as a teaching aid for students of higher educational institutions students in the direction and specialties of psychology Moscow Psychological and Social Institute Moscow 2004
3 LBC ya6 H54 H54 Atlas “Human Nervous System. Structure and violations. Edited by V.M. Astapov and Yu.V. Mikadze. 4th edition, revised. and additional M.: PER SE, p. Reviewers: dr. psychol. sciences, prof. Khomskaya E.D. doc. biol. Sciences Fishman M.N. The atlas presents the most successful illustrations from the works of a number of foreign and domestic authors, demonstrating the structure of the human nervous system (Section I), as well as models of higher human mental functions and individual examples of their impairment in local brain lesions (Section II). The atlas can be used as a visual textbook in courses on psychology, defectology, biology, which deal with the structure of the nervous system and higher mental functions of a person. ID license from PER SE LLC, Moscow, st. Yaroslavskaya, 13, k Tel./fax: (095) Tax benefit all-Russian product classifier OK, volume 2; books, brochures. Signed for printing Format 60x90/8. Offset paper. Offset printing. Conv. oven l. 10.0 Printed at Novosti Printing House OJSC Circulation 5,000 copies. Order L(03) ISBN Astapov V.M., 2004 Mikadze Yu.V., 2004 Tertyshnaya V.V., drawings, 2004 "PER SE", original layout, design, 2004
4 HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM 3 Section I General ideas about the structure of the nervous system From a cytological point of view, the nervous system includes the bodies of all nerve cells, their processes (fibers, bundles formed by them, etc.), supporting cells and membranes. Neurophysiology considers the nervous system as a part of a living system that specializes in the transmission, analysis and synthesis of information, and neuropsychology as a material substrate of complex forms of mental activity that are formed on the basis of combining various parts of the brain into functional systems. The nervous system consists of central and peripheral parts. The composition of the central nervous system (CNS) includes those departments that are enclosed in the cranial cavity and the spinal canal, and the peripheral nodes and bundles of fibers that connect the central nervous system with the sense organs and various effectors (muscles, glands, etc.). The CNS, in turn, is divided into the brain, located in the skull, and the spinal cord, enclosed in the spine. The peripheral nervous system consists of the cranial and spinal nerves. In addition, there is a vegetative (autonomous) nervous system, which also has a central and peripheral sections. The autonomic nervous system is a collection of nerves and ganglions through which the heart, blood vessels, internal organs, glands, etc. are innervated. The internal organs receive dual innervation from the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions of the autonomic nervous system. These two departments have excitatory and inhibitory influences, determining the level of activity of organs.
5 4 Mid-sagittal section of a human head
6 5 Autonomic part of the nervous system (diagram) brown the sympathetic section is depicted, and the parasympathetic section is shown in black. Prenodal fibers are shown with solid lines, postnodal fibers with dashed lines. (According to Kurepina et al.)
7 6 Most Common Anatomical Symbols A. Drawing depicting a human in a quadrupedal position so that the brain and spinal cord roots are arranged in such a way that the anterior and posterior rostral and caudal portions of these structures can be compared with their location in animals. (According to Sade et al.) B, C. Conventional brain section planes in anatomical and pathomorphological studies. and the median (sagittal) plane; b parasagittal and in the frontal (coronary) plane; d plane lying at an angle to the horizontal plane (According to Sade et al.)
8 7 Most common anatomical designations
9 8 Nervous network Anatomical and functional structure of a neuron A large neuron with many dendrites receives information through synaptic contact with another neuron (in the upper left corner). The myelinated axon forms a synaptic contact with the third neuron (below). Neuronal surfaces are shown without glial cells that surround the process directed towards the capillary (upper right). (According to Bloom)
10 9 Scheme of distribution of cellular elements of the cerebral cortex Associative connections in the cerebral cortex 1 pyramid II layer; 2-3 pyramids of the III layer; 4, 5, 17 stellate neurons; 6 pyramids of the IV layer; 7, 8, 9 pyramids of layer V; pyramids of the VI layer. (I-VI layers of the bark) (According to Lorente de No) (According to Laurente de No)
11 10 Undivided brain Shows the main structures involved in sensory processes and internal regulation, as well as the structures of the limbic system and the brain stem. (According to Bloom et al.)
12 11 The most important areas and details of the structure of the brain Left and right cerebral hemispheres, as well as whole line structures lying in the median plane are divided in half. The internal parts of the left hemisphere are depicted as if they were completely dissected. The eye and optic nerve connect to the hypothalamus, from the lower part of which the pituitary gland departs. The pons, medulla oblongata, and spinal cord are extensions of the posterior side of the thalamus. The left side of the cerebellum is under the left cerebral hemisphere, but does not cover the olfactory bulb. The upper half of the left hemisphere is cut open so that some of the basal ganglia (shell) and part of the left lateral ventricle can be seen. (According to Bloom et al.)
13 12 Large hemispheres The figures give the names of the convolutions, and near the figures of the furrows (According to Sinelnikov)
14 13 Large hemispheres Light brown indicates the frontal, light green parietal, red occipital, dark green temporal, dark brown marginal lobes, blue old and ancient cortex, purple cerebellum and gray brainstem. The figures give the names of the convolutions, and near the figures of the furrows. (According to Sinelnikov)
15 14 Topography of the cranial nerves at the base of the skull Cranial nerves 12 paired nerves arising from the brain. I olfactory nerve (n.olfactorius); II optic nerve (n.opticus); III oculomotor nerve (n.oculomotorius); IV trochlear nerve (n.trochlearis); V trigeminal nerve (n.trigeminus); VI abducent nerve (n.abducens); VII facial nerve (n.facialis) and VIIa intermediate nerve (n.intermedius Wrisbergi); VIII vestibulocochlear nerve (n.vestibulocochlearis); IX glossopharyngeal nerve (n.glossopharyngeus); X vagus nerve (n.vagus); XI accessory nerve (n.accessorius); XII hypoglossal nerve (n.hypoglossus). Three cranial nerves are sensitive (I, II, VIII); six motor (III, IV, VI, VII, XI, XII) and three mixed (V, IX, X). (According to Badalyan)
16 15 Cytoarchitectonic fields and representation of functions in the cerebral cortex 1, 2, 3, 5, 7, 43 (partially) representation of skin and proprioceptive sensitivity; 4 motor zone; 6, 8, 9, 10 premotor and accessory motor areas; 11 representation of olfactory reception; 17, 18, 19 representation of visual reception; 20, 21, 22, 37, 41, 42, 44 representation of auditory reception; 37, 42 auditory speech center; 41 projections of the organ of Corti; 44 motor center of speech. (According to Brodman)
17 16 Development of the brain A brain of a five-week-old embryo; B the brain of a thirty-two-thirty-four-week-old fetus; in the brain of a newborn. 1 telencephalon; 2 diencephalon; 3 midbrain; 4 hindbrain; 5 medulla oblongata; 6 brain bridge; 7 cerebellum; 8 spinal cord. (According to Badalyan)
18 17 Proportions of the skull of a newborn and an adult Scheme of the timing of myelination of the main functional systems in the brain Correlation of the proportions of the skull in an embryo of five months (1), a newborn (2), a child of one year (3), an adult (4). (According to Badalyan)
19 18 Areas of cerebral vascularization Arterial blood supply to the upper lateral surface of the cerebral hemispheres. Color coding: red middle cerebral artery, blue anterior cerebral artery, green posterior cerebral artery. Arterial blood supply to the medial surface of the cerebral hemisphere. (According to Badalyan)
20 19 Areas of cerebral vascularization Arteries at the base of the brain (A). Circle of Willis and its branches (B). 1 anterior cerebral artery; 2 internal carotid artery; 3 middle cerebral artery; 4 posterior communicating artery; 5 posterior cerebral artery; 6 superior cerebellar artery; 7 basilar artery; 8 anterior inferior cerebellar artery; 9 labyrinthine artery; 10 posterior inferior cerebellar artery; 11 vertebral artery; 12 anterior spinal artery; 13 anterior communicating artery; 14 olfactory pathway; 15 optic chiasm; 16 mamillary body; 17 posterior communicating artery; 18 oculomotor nerve. (According to Duus)
21 20 The main commissures connecting the two hemispheres of the brain The large size of the corpus callosum in comparison with other connections is striking. The figure shows a section of the brain passing along the median plane. (According to Bloom et al.)
22 21 Anatomical asymmetry of the cerebral hemispheres Above: the Sylvian sulcus in the right hemisphere deviates upward at a large angle. Bottom: The back of the planum temporale is usually much larger in the left hemisphere associated with speech functions. (According to Geschwind)
23 22 HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM Frequency (in percent) of anatomical differences between the hemispheres Type of asymmetry Right-handed Left-handed and ambidextral Sylvian furrow is higher on the right (Galaburda, LeMay, Kemper, Geschwind, 1978) The posterior horn of the lateral ventricle is longer on the left (McRae, Branch, Milner, 1968) yes no inverse relationship yes no inverse relationship Frontal lobe wider on the right (LeMay, 1977) Occipital lobe wider on the left (LeMay, 1977) Frontal lobe protrudes on the right (LeMay, 1977) Occipital lobe protrudes on the left (LeMay, 1977) 77 10.5 12, The frequency (in percent) of anatomical differences between the hemispheres among right-handed and left-handed individuals, as well as people who equally use both hands (ambidextrous). (By Corballis)
24 23 Structures of the brain Cerebellum. A view from above; B view from below. 1 leaves of the cerebellum; 2 fissures of the cerebellum; 3 cerebellar vermis; 4 hemispheres of the cerebellum; 5 anterior lobe of the cerebellum; 6 tongue (According to Fenish and others) Scheme of the ventricles of the brain and their relationship to the surface structures of the cerebral hemispheres. and the cerebellum; b occipital pole; in the parietal pole; g frontal pole; e temporal pole; is the medulla oblongata. 1 lateral opening of the fourth ventricle (foramen of Luschka); 2 lower horn of the lateral ventricle; 3 plumbing; 4 interventricular opening; 5 anterior horn of the lateral ventricle; 6 central part of the lateral ventricle; 7 fusion of visual tubercles (massa intermedia); 8 third ventricle; 9 entrance to the lateral ventricle; 10 posterior horn of the lateral ventricle; 11 fourth ventricle (According to Sade et al.)
25 24 Structures of the brain Topographic relationships of the basal ganglia (A). Relationship of the basal ganglia to the ventricular system (B). 1 pale ball; 2 thalamus; 3 shells; 4 caudate nucleus; 5 amygdala; 6 head of the caudate nucleus; 7 subthalamic nucleus; 8 tail of the caudate nucleus; 9 lateral ventricle. (According to Duus) Lateral ventricles, left caudate and lenticular nuclei (B). 1 lateral ventricle; 2 frontal horn of the lateral ventricle; 3 occipital (posterior) horn; 4 temporal (lower) horn; 5 head of the caudate nucleus; 6 body of the caudate nucleus; 7 tail; 8 lenticular core. (According to Fenish et al.)
26 25 Corticoreticular connections A diagram of pathways of ascending activating influences; B scheme of descending influences of the cortex; Sp specific afferent pathways to the cortex with collaterals to the reticular formation. (According to Magun)
27 26 Conducting pathways and connections of the brain A radiance of the corpus callosum and girdle. B bundles of associative nerve fibers. In arcuate nerve fibers. D, E commissural bundles of fibers. 1 corpus callosum; 2 arcuate fibers of the cerebrum, connect adjacent gyrus; 3 bundles of fibers in the cingulate gyrus; 4 upper longitudinal bundle of associative fibers, starts from the frontal lobe, passes through the occipital lobe to the temporal; 5 lower longitudinal bundle, connects the temporal and occipital lobes of the hemispheres; 6 hook-shaped bundle of associative fibers, connects the lower surface of the frontal and anterior part of the temporal lobes; 7 radiance of the corpus callosum, formed by fibers connecting the cortex of the left and right hemispheres; 8 anterior commissure. (A, B, C according to Fenish and others. D, D according to Duus)
28 27 Pathways of the spinal cord and brain (According to Kurepina et al.)
29 28 Systems of connections of primary, secondary and tertiary fields of the cortex I primary (central) fields; II secondary (peripheral) fields; III tertiary fields (analyzer overlap zones). The solid line marks the systems of projection (cortical-subcortical) projection-associative and associative connections of the cortex; dotted line other links; 1 receptor; 2 effector; 3 sensory node neuron; 4 motor neuron; 5.6 switch neurons of the spinal cord and brainstem; 7 10 switching neurons of subcortical formations; 11, 14 afferent fibers from the subcortex; 13 pyramid of the V layer; 16 pyramid of sublayer III 3 ; 18 pyramids of sublayers III 2 and III 1 ; 12, 15, 17 stellate cells of the cortex. (According to Polyakov)
30 29 History of the development of ideas about the localization of mental functions A. Phrenological map of the localization of mental abilities. Given according to the modern F.A. Gallus statue. B, C. Kleist localization map. (By Luria)
31 30 Cortical projection of sensitivity and motor system The relative size of the organs reflects the area of the cerebral cortex from which the corresponding sensations and movements can be evoked. (According to Penfield)
32 31 Somatic organization of the motor and sensory areas of the human cortex
33 32 Structural-functional model of the integrative work of the brain, proposed by A.R. Luria A. The first block of regulation of general and selective non-specific activation of the brain, including the reticular structures of the brainstem, midbrain and diencephalic regions, as well as the limbic system and mediobasal regions of the cortex of the frontal and temporal lobes brain: 1 corpus callosum, 2 midbrain, 3 mediobasal parts of the right frontal lobe of the brain, 4 cerebellum, 5 reticular formation of the trunk, 6 medial parts of the right temporal lobe of the brain, 7 thalamus; B the second block for receiving, processing and storing exteroceptive information, including the main analyzer systems (visual, skin-kinesthetic, auditory), the cortical zones of which are located in the posterior sections of the cerebral hemispheres: 1 parietal region (general sensitive cortex), 2 occipital region (visual cortex) , 3 temporal region (auditory cortex), 4 central sulcus; In the third block of programming, regulation and control over the course of mental activity, including the motor, premotor and prefrontal parts of the brain with their bilateral connections: 1 prefrontal area, 2 premotor area, 3 motor area (precentral gyrus), 4 central sulcus, (According to Chomsky)
34 33 The most important parts of the brain that form the limbic system The structures of the brain that play a role in emotions Are located along the edges of the cerebral hemispheres, as if "surrounding" them. (According to Bloom et al.) Dopamine fibers from the substantia nigra and norepinephrine fibers from the locus coeruleus innervate the entire forebrain. Both of these groups of neurons, as well as some others, are part of the reticular activating system. (According to Bloom et al.)
35 34 Scheme of the limbic system A side view; B, C dorsal view: 1 supra-causal strip; 2 legs of the hippocampus; 3 medial bundle of the forebrain; 4 anterior nucleus of the thalamus; 5 olfactory bulb; 6 transparent partition; 7 interpeduncular nucleus; 8 mamilary bodies; 9 leash; 10 vault; 11 edge bundle; 12 dentate gyrus; 13 almond-shaped nucleus; 14 epiphysis. (According to Badalyan)
36 35 Visual system Auditory system Connections from the primary receptors of the retina through the transmission nuclei of the thalamus and hypothalamus to the primary visual cortex are shown. (According to Bloom et al.) Connections are shown from primary cochlear receptors through the thalamus to the primary auditory cortex. (According to Bloom et al.)
37 36 Sensations from the surface of the body Olfactory system Taste system Connections from skin receptors through the intercalary neurons of the spinal cord and thalamus to the primary sensory cortex are presented. Connections are shown from nasal mucosal receptors through the olfactory bulbs and basal forebrain nuclei to terminal points in the olfactory cortex. Connections are shown that go from the receptors of the tongue through the initial targets of the pons to the targets of the next order in the cerebral cortex. (According to Bloom et al.) (According to Bloom et al.) (According to Bloom et al.)
38 HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM 37 Pathways for specific types of sensory signals Modality Switching level primary (level 1) secondary (level 2) tertiary (level 3) Vision Retina Lateral geniculate body Primary visual cortex Superior colliculus colliculi Secondary visual cortex Hearing Nuclei of the cochlea Nuclei of the loop, quadrigemina and Primary auditory cortex. medial geniculate body Touch Spinal cord or brainstem Thalamus Somatosensory cortex Smell Olfactory bulb Pyriform cortex Limbic system, hypothalamus Taste Medulla oblongata Thalamus Somatosensory cortex (According to Bloom et al.) Main categories in the field of sensory processes modality and quality Modality Sensory organ Quality Receptors Vision Retina Brightness, Contrast, Rods and cones Movement, Size, Color Hearing Cochlea Pitch, Timbre Hair cells Balance Vestibular organ Gravity Macular cells Rotation Vestibular cells Touch Skin Pressure Ruffini endings Merkel discs Vibration Pacini corpuscle Taste Tongue Sweet and sour taste Taste buds at the tip of the tongue Gorky and salty taste Taste buds at the base of the tongue Smell Olfactory nerves Floral smell Olfactory receptors Fruity Musky Spicy (According to Bloom et al.)
39 38 HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM Comparative characteristics of some types of analyzers Analyzer Visual (constant point signal) Absolute threshold Units of measurement Approximate value Units of measurement lux 4, lux arc. min Differential threshold Approximate value 1% of the initial intensity 0.6-1.5 Degree of performance in technical systems, % 90 Auditory Dyna/cm2 0.0002 dB 0.3-0.7 9 Tactile mg/mm mg/mm2 7% of the initial intensity 1 Taste mg/l mg/l 20% of the initial concentration extremely insignificant Olfactory mg/l 0.001-1 mg/l 16 50%, the same 2.5 9% of the initial value Kinesthetic kg kg Temperature С 0 0.2-0.4 С 0 Vestibular (acceleration during rotation and rectilinear motion) m/s 2 0.1-0.12 (According to Gomezo and others)
40 40 HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM Sequence of processes in response to a visual stimulus Sequence of processes in response to a visual stimulus traced through the entire brain from the retina and optic tract to the visual cortex and frontal association cortex. During a motor response, if it occurs, excitation spreads from the frontal cortex to the motor cortex, is transmitted through the synapse to the motor neuron (shown on the right in an enlarged view), then goes down the brainstem and along the corresponding nerve reaches the muscle that sets the eye in motion. The neuron is surrounded by capillaries and glial cells. Many axons form synapses on the body and dendrites of the neuron. The axon is covered by a myelin sheath. (According to Bloom et al.)
41 41 Scheme of the pathways of the visual system Scheme of the pathways of the visual system: 1 field of view; 2 course of rays in the eyeball; 3 optic nerves; 4 optic chiasm; 5 visual tracts; 6 outer crankshaft; 7 superior tubercles of the quadrigemina; 8 radiant radiance (graziola beam); 9 cortical center. (According to Badalyan)
42 42 Diagram of the organ of Corti
43 43 Auditory system Auditory nerve pathways connect the cochlea of each ear with the auditory areas of the cerebral cortex. At the lowest level of the auditory system (auditory nerves and cochlear nuclei), the pathways from both ears are completely separated. (In this highly simplified diagram, the paths from the left ear are shown in bold lines, and those from the right ear in bold.) At the next level (the olive nucleus in the medulla oblongata), some nerve fibers from the right and left cochlear nuclei converge to the same neurons. These neurons, which transmit signals from both ears, are highlighted in dotted lines. For more high levels system, convergence consistently increases and, accordingly, the interaction between signals from both ears increases, which is reflected in the scheme by an increase in the proportion of neurons depicted by circles. Most of the nerve pathways from the cochlear nucleus go to the opposite side of the brain. 1 auditory cortex, 2 inferior colliculus, 3 auditory nerve, 4 olive nucleus, 5 cochlear nucleus, 6 left cochlea, 7 right cochlea. (According to Rosenzweig)
44 44 Types of skin receptors A Pacini body; B Meissner's body; In the nerve plexus at the base of the hair follicle; G Krause flask; D nerve plexus of the cornea. Nerve endings in the skin are receptors for touch, heat, cold, and pain. 1 free nerve endings; 2 nerve endings around the hair follicles; 3 sympathetic nerves innervating muscle fibers; 4 Ruffini endings; 5 end bulbs Krause; 6 Merkel discs; 7 Meissner's little bodies; 8 sympathetic fibers innervating the sweat gland; 9 nerve trunks; 10 sweat gland; 11 sebaceous gland. The function of each individual type of endings is still unknown. (According to Held et al.)
45 45 Scheme of the structure of the skin-kinesthetic system Presented are efferent neurons with a long axon: 1 ending of sensory and nerve fibers in the skin and muscles, 2 sensory peripheral neurons of the intervertebral nodes, 3 switching nuclei in the medulla oblongata, 4 switching (relay) nuclei in the thalamus , 5 skin-kinesthetic zone of the cortex, 6 motor zone of the cortex, 7 path from the motor cortex to the motor "centers" of the brain and spinal cord (pyramidal path), 8 effector neuron of the spinal cord, 9 motor nerve endings in skeletal muscles. (According to Polyakov)
46 46 Map of cortical areas where tactile signals are projected from the body surface PBV mental vibrissae MB mandibular vibrissae P finger PB chin Areas of the body with a high density of sensory receptors, such as the face or fingers, have more extensive cortical projections than areas with a low density of receptors . The boundaries of these projections are somewhat different for different individuals. (According to Bloom et al.)
47 47 Normal tactile error The normal tactile error can be defined in two ways: firstly, as the average value of the minimum distance between the contacts, at which the subject feels a pair of separate pressings when the contacts are switched on simultaneously (black bars); secondly, as the average distance between the point and the real contact (white columns). As can be seen from the figure, the accuracy of touch is significantly different in different parts of the body; the greatest accuracy is observed on the lips and fingertips. (According to Geldard et al.)
48 48 Scheme of the taste system A connections and insertion systems of the taste analyzer. (According to Smirnov) B receptors of four main taste qualities. The tip of the tongue senses all four qualities to some extent, but is most sensitive to sweet and salty things. The edges of the tongue are more sensitive to sour, but they also perceive a salty taste. The base of the tongue is most sensitive to bitter. (According to Bloom et al.)
49 49 Odor reception A. According to the stereochemical theory, different olfactory nerve cells are excited by different molecules depending on the size, shape or charge of the molecule; these properties determine which of the various pits or fissures at the ends of the olfactory nerve will be approached by the molecule; it can be seen here that the l-menthol molecule corresponds to the deepening of the "mint" receptor site. B. The air carrying the molecules of an odorous substance is drawn into the nasal cavity and passes by three bizarre-shaped bones to the islets of the epithelium, in which the endings of numerous olfactory nerves are immersed. C. Histological section of the olfactory epithelium showing olfactory nerve cells and their processes, trigeminal nerve endings and supporting cells. (According to Eimur et al.)
50 50 Diagram of the olfactory system and its intercalary system connections 1 cingulate gyrus; 2 anterior nucleus of the thalamus; 3 brain strip; 4 end strip; 5 vault; 6 core leash; 7 columns of the vault; 8 nipple visual path; 9 mammillary body; 10 dentate gyrus; 11 temporal lobe; 12 amygdala; 13 lateral (lateral) gyrus; 14 olfactory tract; 15 olfactory bulb; 16 medial (middle) olfactory gyrus; 17 olfactory triangle; 18 anterior commissure; 19 near the olfactory circle; 20 near the corpus callosum; 21 transparent partitions. (According to Gutchin)
51 51 Course of the pyramidal tract 1 parietal-temporal-bridge path; 2 occipital-mesencephalic path; 3 front bridge path; 4 cortical-spinal tract with extrapyramidal fibers; 5 lenticular core; 6 thalamus; 7 caudate nucleus; 8 tire core; 9 red core; 10 black substance; 11 core bridge; 12 from the cerebellum (the core of the tent); 13 reticular formation; 14 lateral nucleus of the vestibule nerve; 15 tire center path; 16 olive; 17 pyramid; 18 red nuclear-spinal tract; 19 olivospinal path; 20 pre-door-spinal path; 21 lateral cortical-spinal tract; 22 reticulospinal tract; 23 occlusal-spinal tract; 24 anterior cortical-spinal tract; 25 midbrain; 26 leg of the bridge; 27 bridge; 28 medulla oblongata; 29 cross pyramids; 30 anterior central gyrus. (According to Duus)
52 52 HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM Section II Higher mental functions: models and examples of disorders in local brain lesions circuit diagram functional system as the basis of neurophysiological architecture M dominant motivation; P memory; OA situational afferentation; PA starting afferentation; PR decision making; PD program of action; ARD acceptor of action results; EV efferent excitations; D action; Res. result; Steam. Res. result parameters; O. Aff. reverse afferentation. (According to Anokhin)
53 HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM 53 Visual disorders In case of damage: I optic nerve (complete blindness on the affected side); II internal parts of the chiasm (heteronymous bitemporal hemianopsia); III external chiasma (internal, nasal hemianopsia); IV optic tract (contralateral homonymous hemianopsia); V lower divisions of the Graziole bundle or gurus lingualis (contralateral upper quadrant homonymous hemianopsia); VI of the upper sections of the Graziole bundle or cuneus (contralateral homonymous hemianopsia); VII diameter of the Graziole bundle (contralateral homonymous hemianopsia with preservation of central vision). (According to Badalyan)
54 54 Drawings of patients with visual agnosias Drawings typical for the subdominant type of opto-spatial agnosia syndrome, right-handed patients with massive lesions of the posterior sections of the right hemisphere involving its parietal lobe. A: a, b, c, d independent drawing on assignment (house, face or person, chair, table); e copying (d sample) with options (I, I, III); B: a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h, the arrangement of the hands on the clock (a circle with a center and “12 o’clock” is set) according to the proposed time (indicated by numbers after completing the task). (By Kok)
55 55 Drawings of patients with visual agnosia Drawings and errors in tests with clocks, typical for the syndrome of spatial agnosia and apraxia of the dominant type, right-handed patients with massive lesions of the posterior parts of the right hemisphere involving its parietal lobe (A, B, C, D, D, E). a, b, c, d independent drawing on assignment (house, face or person, chair, table). W Arrangement of the hands on the clock (circle, center and "12 o'clock" are set) according to the proposed time (indicated by numbers after completing the task). (By Kok)
56 56 Drawings of patients with visual agnosias I. Drawings of patients with damage to the right temporal lobe. Independent drawing on assignment: a, d, e house; b bicycle; in, e, w man. (According to Kok) II. Drawings of patients with lesions of the left temporal lobe. A: a, b independent drawing on assignment; c, d copying from samples; B: a, b independent drawing on assignment; in the sample, r drawing with flipping from left to right and from top to bottom. (By Kok) III. Violations of spatial representations in patient A., 16 years old (epilepsy), left-handed with familial left-handedness. (According to Simernitskaya et al.)
57 57 Drawings of patients with visual agnosias A. Changes in the signs of simultaneous agnosia and optic-motor ataxia after the administration of caffeine to B. V. (bilateral injury of the parieto-occipital region). The patient is invited to outline the figure or put a dot in its center. B. Violation of optic-motor coordination in patient R. (bilateral vascular lesion of the occipital region): a drawing and tracing figures; b letter. B. Drawings from nature and from memory in a patient with agnosia for faces (according to E.S. Bain). B-noy Chern. (bilateral vascular lesion of the occipital region): a copying from the sample; b drawing the same image from memory (According to Luria)
58 58 Ignoring the left side III. Ignoring the left side when copying a pattern. (According to Badalyan) II. Crossing out points for patients with B during the rehabilitation process: 49 (a), 58 (b) and 81 days (c) after severe traumatic brain injury. (According to Dobrokhotova et al.)
59 59 Drawing of a patient with visual neglect Impaired perception of the left visual hemifield in an artist who had a hemorrhage in the posterior parietal region of the right hemisphere of the brain. Self-portraits A, B, C, and D were painted 2, 2.5, 6, and 9 months after the stroke, respectively. In the first portrait, only the right half of the image was taken. Over time, the perception of the left side is gradually restored. (According to Young)
60 60 Device for conducting experiments on patients with a dissected corpus callosum Principle of operation of the Z-lens Names or images of objects are briefly presented on the right or left sides of the screen, and the objects themselves are arranged so that they can be recognized only by touch. (according to Gazzaniga) The lens is adjacent directly to the eye, and the rays of light passing through it project the image only on one half of the retina. The other eye is covered with an overlay, so that the possibility for the other hemisphere to "see" the same material is completely excluded. Therefore, the subjects can look at the image for much longer than in experiments with a tachistoscope. (According to Bloom et al.)
61 61 Drawings of a patient with depression of the right or left hemisphere Sick. Sh-va. Drawings of the patient: 1 In the normal state; 2 In a state of oppressed right hemisphere; 3 In a state of depressed left hemisphere. (According to Deglin et al.)
62 62 HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM Influence of commissurotomy on drawing and writing Differences between the hemispheres in visual perception Left hemisphere Right hemisphere A drawing a cube before and after commissurotomy: before surgery, the patient can draw a cube with each hand; after the operation, the drawing of the cube with the right hand was grossly disturbed; the patient is right-handed. (according to Gazzaniga and Ledoc); B "dysgraphia-discopy" syndrome and its dynamics after crossing the posterior parts of the corpus callosum. (According to Moscoviciute, etc.) Stimuli are better recognized Verbal Non-verbal Easily distinguishable Difficult to distinguish Familiar Unfamiliar Tasks are better perceived Evaluation of temporal relationships Establishment of similarity Establishment of the identity of stimuli by name Transition to verbal coding Evaluation of spatial relations Establishment of differences Establishment of the physical identity of stimuli Visual-spatial analysis Features of the processes perception Analytical perception Holistic perception Sequential (Gestalt) perception Simultaneous perception Abstract, generalized, Concrete recognition Invariant recognition Supposed morphophysiological differences Focused Diffuse representation Representation of elementary functions (According to Leushina and others)
63 63 Different types of mistakes when writing with the left and right hand I. Writing under dictation with the right hand. II. Involuntary writing (habitual words). III. Arbitrary letter. (According to Simernitskaya)
64 64 Violations of the letter Patient Kul. A. Writing letters in different conditions. B. Writing letters in alphabetical order Writing a letter included in a well-reinforced word or an automated series does not require optical-spatial analysis necessary for writing an isolated letter and is carried out based on a well-reinforced system of kinesthetic stereotypes in the patient (not affected by local brain damage) . (According to Luria et al.)
65 65 Types of sensory disturbances a neuritic type; b segmental type; in violation of sensitivity in case of damage to the visual tubercle; d polyneuritic type. When the trunk of a peripheral nerve or nerve plexus is damaged, all types of sensitivity in the zone of innervation of this nerve are disturbed (a). Multiple nerve damage (polyneuritis) causes impaired sensation in the hands and feet, similar to gloves and stockings (d). Damage to the root or intervertebral node causes a violation of all types of sensitivity in the corresponding segmental zones (b). The defeat of the visual tuberosity and the posterior central gyrus of the cerebral cortex causes the loss of all types of sensitivity on the opposite side (c). (According to Badalyan)
66 66 HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM Functional model of objective action (According to Gordeeva, Zinchenko)
67 HUMAN NERVOUS SYSTEM 67 Construction of movement according to H.A. Bernstein Scheme of the main centers and pathways of the brain with their distribution according to the levels "A, B, C, D, E", which provides the construction and coordination of the main movements and actions of a person. (For clarity, the true spatial arrangement of the centers of the brain is significantly distorted). (According to Naidin)
68 68 Scheme of regulation of speech activity
69 69 Lateral surface of the left hemisphere with the proposed boundaries of the "speech zones" Regions of the cortex of the left hemisphere of the brain associated with speech functions The inner region (shaded) part of the brain, lesions of which always lead to aphasia. The pathology of the surrounding part (point) also often leads to aphasia. Pathology of other zones is rarely accompanied by speech disorders. (According to Benson et al.) A "speech zone" of the cortex of the left hemisphere; a Broca's area, in Wernicke's area, with the "center" of visual representations of words (According to Dejerine), B areas of the cortex of the left hemisphere, electrical stimulation of which causes various speech disorders in the form of stopping speech, stuttering, repeating words, various motor speech defects, as well as inability to name an object. (According to Penfield and Roberts)
70 70 Location of lesions in the left hemisphere of the brain in various forms of aphasia a with sensory aphasia, b with acoustic-mnestic aphasia, c with afferent motor aphasia, d with "semantic" aphasia, e with dynamic aphasia, f with efferent motor aphasia. (by Luria)
71 71 Localization of brain lesions in various forms of agraphia, combined with aphasia I. Lesions affecting the anterior sections of the cerebral cortex. A. Agraphia, combined with Broca's aphasia. B. Agraphia, combined with transcortical motor aphasia. B. Agraphia associated with global aphasia. G. Agraphia, combined with mixed transcortical aphasia. P. Lesions of the posterior parts of the cerebral cortex. D. Agraphia, combined with Wernicke's aphasia. E. Agraphia, combined with transcortical sensory aphasia. G. Agraphia, combined with anomic aphasia. 3. Agraphia, combined with conduction aphasia. (Note the classification of aphasias accepted in foreign psychology is given.) (According to the Blackwell Dictionary)
72 72 Magnetic resonance image of the brain of a patient with Gerstmann's syndrome Localization of lesions of the cerebral cortex in alexia Foci of pathology corresponding to the three main syndromes of alexia: A in the anterior sections; B in the central departments; In the back departments. Infarction in the left angular gyrus (left hemisphere is on the right side of the photo. (According to Blackwell's Dictionary) (According to Blackwell's Dictionary)
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