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Goals:

• Find out the historical background and the inevitability of a radical reform of the Soviet political and economic system and consider alternative ways of its development.
• Continue the formation of skills to conduct a dialogue, cooperate in groups, simulate situations.

Lesson type: a lesson in studying a new topic (the topic is studied in a 2-hour lesson)

During the classes

Organizing time.

Exploring a new topic.

1. Prerequisites for perestroika in the USSR, its tasks.
2. Reform political system. Changes in culture and public consciousness.
3. Social - economic reforms. acceleration strategy.
4. Foreign policy of the USSR in the years of perestroika.

Topic Dictionary:

Publicity is the availability of information for public review and discussion.

At the March (1985) Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, MS Gorbachev was elected General Secretary. He proposed a course towards the modernization of the Soviet system, which was called "perestroika".

Perestroika is a set of reforms carried out in all spheres of life by the Communist Party and the Soviet government since 1985 in order to eliminate stagnation.

Task: listening to the story, name the reasons reforms in all spheres of society.

By the mid 80s. in the socio-economic system of the USSR, “stagnation” gradually turned into a crisis situation. The Soviet economy lost its dynamism. There was a drop in the growth rate in the industry. Crisis phenomena were observed in the sphere of the consumer market and finance (including in connection with the fall in world oil prices).

In 1965-1985 the formation of the main institutions of the Soviet bureaucratic system was completed. There was a degradation of the ruling elite - the nomenklatura, which was mired in corruption and protectionism. Society faced the phenomenon of gerontocracy, when aging sick leaders were in power.

There was also a crisis in the social sphere. In the beginning. In the 1980s, real per capita incomes fell, and life expectancy declined. The remaining egalitarian and scarce system of distribution in the lower part of the social pyramid came into conflict with the protected system of privileges of the nomenklatura.

There were problems in interethnic relations. The Union republics demanded real rights and opportunities to independently solve economic and social problems, blaming the Russian population for the crisis,

The ongoing Cold War and the established bipolar system led by the US and the USSR resulted in an exhausting arms race. The stalemate of the Afghan war contributed to the aggravation of the international situation. All this happened against the backdrop of the increasing economic and technological backwardness of the USSR from developed countries.

So, reasons for perestroika:

1. Sharp drop in pace economic development USSR.
2. The crisis of the planned economy.
3. An increase in the bureaucratic apparatus of management.
4. Social inequality.
5. The crisis of interethnic relations.
6. Loss of the international prestige of the USSR.

Task: based on the reasons, formulate the tasks of restructuring.

Restructuring tasks:

• In the field of economics - to change the economic model, to create a market economy, to eliminate the backlog from the advanced countries.
• In the social sphere, to achieve a high standard of living for the entire population.
• In the field of domestic political - to change the political regime, to create a democratic, civil society, the rule of law, to change the concept of relations between the republics within the framework of the Union.
• In the field of foreign policy - to create a new doctrine of state security, to develop new approaches to international relations.

Conclusion: in the early 80's. the crisis of the system matured in the country, all sectors of society were interested in transformations.

Directions for the implementation of restructuring

Glasnost is the availability of information for public review and discussion (the term first appeared in February 1986 at the XXVII Congress of the CPSU).

Stages of restructuring:

• April 1985 - January 1987
• Early 1987 - Spring 1989
• Spring 1989 - August 1991

The first stage of restructuring - personnel revolution (1985-86), when the rejuvenation of the composition of party and state leaders took place, their support for perestroika.

On the political arena appeared: Yeltsin, Ryzhkov, Ligachev, Shevardnadze. In connection with the emergence of a multi-party system - Zyuganov (leader of the Communist Party of the Russian Federation), Zhirinovsky (leader of the Liberal Democratic Party), Novodvorskaya (leader of the Democratic Union), Gaidar (leader of Democratic Russia).

Second phase - reform of the political system. Decisions made on:

Democratization of the process of elections to representative bodies of power.

The course towards the creation of a socialist legal state.

Separation of powers. The establishment of a two-tier system of legislative power - the Congress of People's Deputies and the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, elected from the deputies of the congress.

Law on Changing the Electoral System (1988) Direct representation of public organizations in the highest legislative bodies. Of the 2,250 deputies, 750 were elected from the CPSU, Komsomol, trade unions, etc.

The beginning of the formation of a multi-party system.

Elimination of the monopoly right of the CPSU to power by abolishing the 6th article of the Constitution.

Introduction of the post of President of the USSR (March 1990, III Congress of People's Deputies).

In May-June 1989, the First Congress of People's Deputies took place, at which Gorbachev was elected Chairman of the Supreme Council, B.N. Yeltsin became Chairman of the Supreme Council of the RSFSR.

The Third Congress of People's Deputies in March 1990 elected MS Gorbachev President of the USSR.

By the beginning of 1991, Gorbachev's centrist policy increasingly coincided with the position of the conservatives.

The USSR lagged behind the leading world powers in terms of economic development, the economy plunged into a crisis. Restructuring of the economy was taking place all over the world; the transition to the information society was carried out, in our country the economy experienced stagnation.

Assignment: Independent group work of students with the text of the textbook, highlighting 3 stages of economic reform. Make notes in the form of a diagram.

3rd stage of reforms

Outcome:

• Discussion of programs in the Supreme Council - autumn 1990
• We synthesized both programs and issued a declaration of intent.
• It provided for the transition to the market in the USSR by 1997.
• The refusal of the Union republics to accept it for execution.

Conversation on:

1. What does the term "acceleration" mean? What are the acceleration levers? Results?
2. What elements of a market economy have been introduced?
3. What program for overcoming the crisis did Yavlinsky, Shatalin, Ryzhkov propose?
4. How did the collapse of economic reforms affect the fate of the Soviet state?

Teacher's word. The change in foreign policy strategy was prepared by the arrival of a new leadership at the Ministry of Foreign Affairs in 1985, headed by Shevardnadze E.A.

Gorbachev M.S. put forward a new philosophical and political concept, called "new political thinking". Its main provisions were:

Rejection of the idea of ​​splitting the world into two opposing systems, i.e. abandonment of the Cold War policy;

Refusal to use force as a means of resolving international problems;

Recognition of the world as integral and indivisible;

The priority of universal human values, the recognition of generally accepted norms of morality.

New political thinking is a set of ideas and approaches that express the interests of people, regardless of their nationality and state affiliation, and ensure the survival of mankind in the nuclear space age.

The main priorities in the foreign policy of the USSR after 1985

• Reducing tensions between East and West through disarmament talks with the US;
• Settlement of regional conflicts;
• Recognition of the existing world order and expansion of economic ties with all countries.

Directions of the foreign policy of the USSR

RESULTS

• End of the Cold War (1988)
• The collapse of the bipolar system of international relations
• USA is the only superpower
• Escalation of international military conflicts

Conclusions:

1. During the period of perestroika, the Soviet political system was finally destroyed.
2. On the wave of democratization, political pluralism and a multi-party system were formed.
3. The socio-economic system could not exist outside the administrative-command form, so the half-hearted reforms in the field of the economy failed.
4. The Cold War ended, but the international positions of the USSR weakened.
5. Perestroika ended with the collapse of the USSR and the collapse of the communist system.

Reflection:

Define the terms:

• perestroika
• "Personnel revolution"
• Acceleration strategy
• Publicity policy
• Regional conflicts
• Velvet revolutions

List of used literature

1. Artemov V.V., Lyubchenkov Yu.N. History for professions and specialties of technical, natural science, socio-economic profiles: a textbook for the beginning. and avg. prof. education: in 2 Ch., M., 2011, - Ch 2, paragraph 97.
2. Araslanova O.V., Pozdeev A.V. Lesson developments on the history of Russia (XX - beginning of the XXI century): Grade 9. - M., 2007, - 320 p.

Perestroika in the USSR changed many fates of Russians. Someone speaks of the events of this time as inevitable. Someone thinks that nothing needed to be rebuilt.

Perestroika events took place under the leadership of M. S. Gorbachev, who became General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU in 1985.

Perestroika in the USSR 1985-1991

At the April plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU in 1985, an announcement was made about the beginning of perestroika, the first stages of which sounded like "acceleration and perestroika."

Mikhail Sergeevich Gorbachev (born 1931) - the last General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU (1985-1991). The last Chairman of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR (1988-1989), then the first Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR (1989-1990). The first and only president of the USSR (1990-1991).

The concept of "acceleration" meant the growth of the economy. The meaning of this process was to double the entire national economy of the USSR within 15 years. This term was quickly forgotten, and everything that happened in the country began to be called "perestroika".

The period of history called perestroika was characterized by major transformations that changed Soviet society and led to the collapse of the USSR.

Background and reasons

The pre-perestroika period is defined as the "era of stagnation", the consequences of which led to the rejection of the socialist path.

The prerequisites for the restructuring were:

1. Economic forces characterized by a decrease in the growth of agriculture and industry; a drop in labor productivity; collapse of the financial system; shortage of goods and the introduction of cards; scientific and technical backwardness of resource-saving technologies and industries; increase in external debt.
2. Social factors- lowering the living standards of citizens and strengthening the dissident movement.
3. Political factors including corruption, criminalization of the economy, the growth of national contradictions.
4. Foreign policy factors reflected in the weakening of the international status of the USSR, in the isolation of the country due to the events in Afghanistan and the aggravation of the Cold War.

The main reason for the restructuring was the crisis state of the country's economic development, which led to many other factors. One of them is gerontocracy, the concentration of power in the hands of older leaders.

The purpose of Gorbachev's perestroika

The objectives of the declaration of transition to the new policy were:

• improvement of the country's economy;
• rejuvenation of the composition of the highest authorities;
• regulation of foreign policy.

At the same time, the team of organizers of perestroika did not seek to turn the country onto the capitalist path, they sought to improve socialism.

The events that took place during the years of perestroika are presented in a chronological table.

Reforms and laws of perestroika of the USSR

Political perestroika reforms include:

• a decree indicating the renewal of personnel concerning the leaders of the upper echelons of power;
• amnesty for political prisoners;
• the law "On the Press and Mass Media", which proclaimed the policy of glasnost;
• a change in the Constitution introducing a two-tier system of powerful legislative bodies;
• the introduction of the highest post Soviet Union- President.

Well-known economists Abalkin, Zaslavskaya and Aganbegyan developed a project for the implementation of economic reforms, requiring new laws.

The way out of the economic crisis in Russia was supposed to be through the adoption of:

• the law on economic activity at state enterprises, which provides for the empowerment of them, but the ministries did not allow them to manage independently;
• laws on private activity, which made it possible for the emergence of free entrepreneurs, but the private sector and cooperatives were heavily taxed;
• regulations reflecting the sharp transition of enterprises to a market economy.

A group of scientists, headed by academician Shatalin and Deputy Chairman of the Council of Ministers Yavlinsky, developed a project that allows switching to a market economy within 500 days. The main content of the project included:

• the opportunity to privatize state-owned industrial and commercial enterprises;
• the launch of inflation processes and the emergence of unemployment;
• uncontrolled rise in prices.

The plan was not approved by Gorbachev.

The results of perestroika - achievements and mistakes

Speaking briefly about the reasons for the failure of perestroika, the following facts should be noted:

1. Reforms for the development of agriculture began too late, were half-hearted and did not solve the food problem in the country.
2. Industrial production was reduced, and sometimes closed.
3. The failure of reforms in the field of credit, centralization of the supply system and pricing policy further worsened the economic situation.
4. The emergence of the financial crisis was characterized by inflation - up to 30% monthly, an increase in foreign debts - up to 60 billion dollars, the depletion of foreign exchange reserves and the gold reserves of the State Bank.
5. The "black" market was opened a free way, the shortage of goods became general.

Speaking about the historical significance of perestroika, its pluses and minuses, it should be noted negative totals, characterized by:

• the collapse of the USSR;
• ethnic conflicts;
• economic crisis;
• falling living standards of the population;
• the growth of social tension;
• weakening of the country's international positions;
• a decrease in defense capability.

Positive outcomes include:

• gaining independence;
• the emergence of conditions for the exchange of a totalitarian regime for a democratic one, and the introduction of an economy on a market basis instead of an administrative economy;
• creating favorable conditions in foreign policy leading to the strengthening of peace with other states and the end of the Cold War.

The intentions of the Gorbachev team to bring the country to a new level due to gross miscalculations led to the disintegration of the country and a change in the fate of millions of Russian citizens.

perestroika- the general name for the reforms and new ideology of the Soviet party leadership, used to denote large and controversial changes in the economic and political structure USSR, initiated by the General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU M. S. Gorbachev in 1986-1991.

In May 1986, Gorbachev visited Leningrad, where at a meeting with the party activists of the Leningrad city committee of the CPSU, he first used the word "perestroika" to refer to the socio-political process:

“Apparently, comrades, we all need to reorganize. Everyone".

The term was picked up by the media and became the slogan of the new era that began in the USSR.

For your information,(because in many textbooks since 1985):

"Legally" the beginning of perestroika is considered 1987, when at the January plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU perestroika was declared the direction of development of the state.

Background.

In 1985, Mikhail Gorbachev came to power. By that time, the USSR was already on the verge of a deep crisis, both in the economy and in the social sphere. The efficiency of social production was steadily declining, and the arms race was a heavy burden on the country's economy. In fact, all spheres of society needed to be updated.

Characteristics of the pre-perestroika administrative system: strict administrative and directive tasks, a centralized system of material and technical supply, strict regulation of the activities of enterprises and organizations. Management of the economy as a whole, and each of its branches, each enterprise, large or small, was carried out mainly by administrative methods with the help of targeted directive tasks. The command-and-order form of government alienated people both from labor itself and from its results, turning public property into a draw. This mechanism, as well as the political system, was personified in the people who reproduced it. The bureaucratic apparatus maintained a system that allowed its ideas to occupy profitable positions, to be "at the top", regardless of the actual state of affairs in the national economy.

The April (1985) Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU proclaimed a new strategy - the acceleration of the socio-economic development of the country. By the mid-1980s, the imminent need for change was clear to many in the country. Therefore, proposed in those conditions by M.S. Gorbachev's "perestroika" found a lively response in all strata of Soviet society.

If we try to defineperestroika , then in my opinion,"perestroika" - this is the creation of an effective mechanism for accelerating the socio-economic development of society; comprehensive development of democracy strengthening discipline and order respect for the value and dignity of the individual; renunciation of command and administration, encouragement of innovation; a turn to science, a combination of scientific and technological achievements with the economy, etc.

Restructuring tasks.

The entry of the USSR into the era of radical transformation dates back to April 1985 and is associated with the name of the new General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU M.S. Gorbachev (elected to this post at the March Plenum of the Central Committee).

The new course proposed by Gorbachev assumed the modernization of the Soviet system, the introduction of structural and organizational changes in economic, social, political and ideological mechanisms.

In the new strategy, personnel policy acquired particular importance, which was expressed, on the one hand, in the fight against negative phenomena in the party and state apparatus (corruption, bribery, etc.), on the other hand, in the elimination of political opponents of Gorbachev and his course (in the Moscow and Leningrad party organizations, in the Central Committee of the Communist Parties of the Union Republics).

The ideology of reform.

Initially (beginning in 1985), the strategy was to improve socialism and accelerate socialist development. At the January 1987 Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, and then at the XIX All-Union Party Conference (summer 1988) M.S. Gorbachev laid out a new ideology and strategy for reform. For the first time, the presence of deformations in the political system was recognized and the task was to create a new model - socialism with a human face.

The ideology of perestroika included some liberal democratic principles (separation of powers, representative democracy (parliamentarism), protection of civil and political human rights). At the 19th Party Conference, the goal of creating a civil (legal) society in the USSR was proclaimed for the first time.

Democratization and Glasnost became the essential expressions of the new concept of socialism. Democratization touched the political system, but it was also seen as the basis for the implementation of radical economic reforms.

At this stage of perestroika, publicity and criticism of the deformations of socialism in the economy, politics, and the spiritual sphere were widely developed. The Soviet people have access to many works by both theoreticians and practitioners of Bolshevism, declared at one time enemies of the people, and figures of the Russian emigration of various generations.

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Abstract on the topic:

"Perestroika in the USSR: causes, course, consequences"

Introduction

§one. Reasons for perestroika in the USSR

§2. The progress of perestroika in the USSR

§3. The consequences of perestroika in the USSR

Conclusion

Bibliography

ATineating

Since the mid 80s. especially since the early 1990s. in Russia, as well as in the USSR as a whole, serious changes began to take place. These changes have affected all aspects of the socio-economic and especially political life Soviet society. They proceeded very quickly, were controversial in nature and had serious consequences for Russia and all the republics that were part of the Soviet Union.

However, political events that took place in the Soviet Union and its republics, were reflected in the process of world political history.

Perestroika is a very high-profile period in the history of the USSR. The policy of perestroika, initiated by part of the leadership of the CPSU headed by Mikhail Gorbachev, led to significant changes in the life of the country and the world as a whole. In the course of perestroika, problems that had accumulated over decades were exposed, especially in the economy and the interethnic sphere. Added to all this were the mistakes and miscalculations made in the process of carrying out the reforms themselves. The political confrontation between the forces advocating the socialist path of development, parties and movements linking the future of the country with the organization of life on the principles of capitalism, as well as on issues of the future image of the Soviet Union, the relationship between union and republican bodies of state power and administration, sharply escalated. By the beginning of the 1990s, perestroika led to an aggravation of the crisis in all spheres of society and to the further disintegration of the USSR.

§one. Reasons for perestroika in the USSR

By the beginning of the 80s. The Soviet Union has reached a new technical level, and new branches of industry have developed (electronics, precision instrumentation, the nuclear industry, etc.). The creation of production, research and production, agro-industrial, inter-collective farm associations has become a mass phenomenon. A unified energy system, transport system, automatic communication system, oil and gas supply were formed and operated. The economic ties of the republics and regions have become closer. However, the administrative-command system of management, the practice of planning and the guardianship of decision-making bodies over enterprises were preserved.

The country's leadership at the congresses of the CPSU repeatedly made decisions aimed at overcoming the dictates of the departmental bureaucracy, at developing economic methods of managing, expanding the independence of the enterprise. However, these decisions remained on paper. There was no transition from extensive to intensive economic development. Scientific - technical process acted sluggishly. As before, progressive changes were held back by the old system of management. Serious deformations have accumulated in planning. Mistakes were made in commodity-money relations. Cooperative forms of farming were underestimated. Weakened economic control over the use of forms of ownership. Gross miscalculations were made in economic policy.

The policy of raising the population's income, increasing its education and improving housing conditions contributed to the development of needs, increased demand for new, better goods and consumer goods. However, the production of consumer goods, the organization of food supply, the development of the service sector, trade, transport, the culture and recreation industry, and medical care were at a low level. In the 60s - the first half of the 80s. there was a deep need for socio-economic renewal, for the development of a new policy, new priorities. However, this need was not realized. As a result, deformations in economic and social life were intensified.

1. The systemic socio-economic crisis caused by the arms race in the foreign policy of the USSR, the financial dependence of the socialist countries on Soviet subsidies. Unwillingness to change the command-administrative system of management in accordance with the new conditions - in domestic policy ("stagnation").

2. There were also accompanying prerequisites and reasons for perestroika in the USSR: the aging of the Soviet elite, whose average age was within 70 years; omnipotence of the nomenklatura; rigid centralization of production; shortage of both consumer goods and durable goods.

All these factors led to the realization of the changes necessary for the further development of Soviet society. These changes began to be personified by M. S. Gorbachev, who became General Secretary of the Central Committee of the CPSU in March 1985.

§2. The progress of perestroika in the USSR

First stage: April 1985-1986 It was initiated by the April plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, which proclaimed a course to accelerate the socio-economic development of the country through the intensification of production based on the introduction of scientific and technological progress. Mechanical engineering played a key role in this process. Priority in the development was given to machine tool building, computer technology, microelectronics and instrumentation, improvement of management and planning. For this purpose, a number of new management structures were created: the Bureau of the USSR Council of Ministers for Mechanical Engineering, the State Committee for Computer Science and Informatics, etc. It was decided that it was necessary to create non-departmental control over compliance with standards (in the mid-1980s, only 29% of engineering products met international standards). Enterprises are introducing state acceptance of manufactured products (state acceptance), which by the beginning of 1988 existed at 2,000 enterprises.

Anti-alcohol campaign : On May 7, 1985, the resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU "On measures to overcome drunkenness and alcoholism" was adopted. In accordance with it, in every work collective it was required to create an atmosphere of intolerance towards drunkenness and violations of discipline. Also, to combat drunkenness, it was planned to annually reduce the production and sale of alcoholic beverages and by 1988 completely stop the production of fruit and berry wines. The anti-alcohol campaign initially met with some success. Alcohol consumption has dropped markedly (according to official data in 1984 per capita consumption was 8.4 liters; in 1985 it was 7.2; in 1987 it was 3.3). Reduced injuries and deaths at work. However, the negative consequences were much more significant. The production of moonshine began everywhere, as a result of which there was a shortage of sugar, and the quality of bread decreased due to the lack of yeast. The lack of alcohol affected industry and medicine. Consumption of surrogate alcohol has increased. (In 1987, the use of chemical fluids, especially antifreeze and methyl alcohol, killed 11,000 people). Decreased budget revenues. For 1985-87 the state was short of more than 37 billion rubles. Under these conditions, in the fall of 1988, the government was forced to lift the restriction on the sale of alcoholic beverages. Increasing labor productivity by strengthening discipline and order in all sectors of the economy. The strengthening of discipline began with a large-scale anti-alcohol campaign.

In the same vein, in May 1986, a resolution was adopted aimed at combating unearned income (requisitions of agricultural products from local markets, demolition of greenhouses and other "self-constructed objects", etc.). Improvement of material incentives for labor and activation of social policy. To this end, a number of resolutions were adopted to increase the salaries of scientists, increase pensions and benefits, introduce new benefits for participants in the Great Patriotic War, etc.

In general, the first period of reforms was characterized by the predominance of the administrative approach to solving economic problems. The basic principles of the Soviet economy remained unchanged.

At the second stage of the reforms (1987-1989), the concept of "perestroika" was formed and the first attempts to liberalize the economy were made.

The January (1987) plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU laid the foundation for this. It was decided to introduce self-management in production. It was to be carried out through the creation of councils of labor collectives, which were endowed with decisive powers on a wide range of issues. The plenum recommended introducing the election of managers in production and the reporting of officials to labor collectives.

On January 1, 1988, the law “On a State Enterprise (Association)” came into force: instead of a plan, a “state order” was introduced, after which enterprises were allowed to independently sell their products. From now on, the manufacturer had to build its activities on the basis of full self-financing and self-financing. An indicator of economic activity is profit (!). Enterprises gained independence in determining the size of the workforce, setting wages, and choosing economic partners. The activities of unprofitable and insolvent enterprises could be terminated. The role of the center was to prepare general plan and determining the scope of the state order.

Some changes are taking place in foreign economic policy. Since 1987, a number of ministries and departments have acquired the right to independently carry out export-import operations in the foreign market. The creation in the USSR of mixed (joint) enterprises and associations with the participation of foreign firms was allowed. (Moreover, in the authorized capital, the Soviet part should have exceeded 50%, and the director of the enterprise should have been a citizen of the USSR). By the end of 1988, more than 100 enterprises with joint capital were operating in the country. However, their creation was slow (bureaucratic red tape, high tax rates, lack of legal protection of investments).

On July 1, 1988, the law "On Cooperation in the USSR" was put into effect. Cooperative enterprises, along with state enterprises, were recognized as the main link in the national economy. Cooperatives could operate in agriculture, industry, construction, transport, trade, public catering. According to the Soviet leadership, cooperatives were supposed to help saturate the consumer market with goods and services. In mid-1988, laws were passed that allowed private activity in more than 30 types of production of goods and services.

In the countryside, the equality of five forms of management was recognized: collective farms, state farms, agro-combines, rental cooperatives and peasant (farm) farms. Collective farms, according to the new regulation (1988), could independently determine the size of individual plots and the number of livestock in subsidiary plots. Rural residents received the right to lease land for a period of 50 years and fully dispose of the products produced.

In the late 1980s, the structures of state power also underwent transformations. They were initiated by the 19th All-Union Party Conference. It unfolded a sharp struggle between the opinions of supporters and opponents of perestroika on the question of the tasks of the country's development. Most of the delegates supported M. Gorbachev's point of view on the urgent need for economic reform and the transformation of the political system of society.

The democratization of public life was one of the tasks of perestroika, its most essential characteristic at that time. It permeated all spheres of society; in the sphere of politics, it assumed a change in the very mechanism of power, a transition from the hierarchical management of society for the working people through a relatively narrow ruling stratum, to the self-government of the working people. In the economic sphere, democratization focused on changing the mechanism for the implementation of public and personal property, so that labor collectives and all workers received real rights as owners of social production and the opportunity to show individual labor initiative.

In 1988 executing the decision of the XIX conference, through the constitutional reform, the structure of the supreme authorities and the electoral system of the country were changed. A new legislative body was established - the Congress of People's Deputies, which met once a year. He elected from among his members the Supreme Soviet of the USSR and the Chairman. Similar structures were created in the Union republics.

The reform also approved the post of President of the USSR, endowed with broad powers. The President became the Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces of the USSR, appointed and dismissed the military command. The President represented the Supreme Court of the USSR, and then the Congress of People's Deputies for approval and dismissal of the Chairman of the Government of the USSR, the Supreme Court, the Prosecutor General, the Chairman of the Supreme Arbitration Court of the USSR and the personnel of the USSR Constitutional Supervision Committee.

As perestroika developed, it became more and more obvious that its fate rested on the state of the political system, the political life of society. The growing attention of the public to the problems of social development showed more and more that without radical changes in public life it is not possible to solve either economic or social tasks. The initial idea of ​​the reformers to preserve the socialist political system and only partially democratize it became more and more utopian.

The differences between the reformers and the emerging social movements, especially the new labor movements, were very serious. A federation of independent trade unions of Russia was formed, a congress of miners announced the creation of a new miners' trade union, similar steps were taken by workers in a number of other industries. The past congress of councils of labor collectives and workers' committees expressed its readiness to share responsibility for the course of economic transformations in the country, to prevent the uncontrolled sale of state property, the transformation of previously all-powerful ministries into new monopolistic associations, concerns and associations.

By that time, the life support system was in an extremely difficult situation, the domestic food and industrial supply was noticeably reduced, serious damage was caused to transport, telecommunications and other systems, housing and communal services fell into decay. Began to form an orientation towards elite expensive medical care, paid higher education and providing benefits to various categories of workers.

Under these conditions, M. Gorbachev and a team of reformers were looking for different ways out of the crisis. And here an important role was played by the restoration of relations between church and state. Gorbachev had several meetings with the Patriarch of the Russian Orthodox Church, Pimen, and representatives of other religious denominations. In 1988 jubilee celebrations were held at the state level in connection with the 1000th anniversary of the baptism of Russia. New religious communities were registered, spiritual educational institutions were opened, and the circulation of published religious literature increased. The religious buildings that had been taken from them earlier were returned to the believers. The authorities gave permission for the construction of new temples. Church leaders got the opportunity, along with all citizens, to participate in public life, several prominent church hierarchs were elected deputies to the Supreme Council of the country.

The ongoing economic reform did not improve the state of affairs in the national economy, and the rate of growth in industrial output dropped sharply. The size of the state budget deficit increased, unemployment grew, mass protests of dissatisfied workers intensified. economic policy states, powerful strikes of miners began.

In relation to agricultural enterprises, party reformers from the very beginning took a tough position, M. Gorbachev's associate A. Yakovlev directly proclaimed that it was necessary to destroy the Bolshevik community - the collective farm.

The informational anti-kolkhoz campaign and hostility towards collective farms peaked in the early 1990s. The agrarian policy of the reformers, based on the destruction of collective farms and state farms, and the planting of farming, has reached a dead end. The failure of the agricultural reform largely deprived Gorbachev of public support, since for many the criterion for evaluating his performance was the availability of food in stores.

The reforms carried out in the country radically affected the armed forces, the reorganization of this institution of the state took place in the context of a tough ideological campaign against the KGB and the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Considering them the most conservative part of the Soviet state, the ideologists of perestroika sought to disarm them psychologically. Actions were purposefully carried out to destroy the positive image of all the armed forces in the public mind and to undermine the self-respect of the officer corps.

Following its peace-loving policy, the Soviet government unilaterally declared a moratorium on nuclear weapons testing, and the deployment of medium-range missiles in the European part of the country was also suspended. To the detriment of national interests and without apparent necessity, Soviet troops and military equipment were withdrawn from the territory of the GDR, and the armed forces were reduced by 500 thousand people. The conversion of military production and the transfer of military factories to the production of civilian products, mainly consumer goods, began. Under pressure from the public in February 1989. the withdrawal of Soviet troops from Afghanistan was completed, but for another two years, Afghanistan received assistance with weapons and ammunition. Without preconditions, the withdrawn Soviet troops were quartered in unprepared military camps, as a result, the morale in the troops was rapidly falling.

A real step towards the implementation of political reform and the creation of a law-based state was the reform of the law enforcement system of the USSR. Serious changes that took place in the psychology of the Soviet people could not but affect the activities of the court, the prosecutor's office, state security agencies and the police. In the conditions of building a rule of law state, democratization of public life, harmonization of legislation, a lot has changed in the activities of the internal affairs bodies. Restructuring in the political, economic life countries contributed to the deterioration of the rule of law and the growth of crime, the registration discipline was significantly weakened, the concealment of crimes from registration and illegal prosecution flourished. By this time in society, there were conditions for the formation of organized crime and banditry.

In 1989-1991 outwardly subtle, but important changes took place in all law enforcement agencies (the Ministry of Internal Affairs, the KGB, the court, the prosecutor's office), this is the departure from the system of most of the qualified personnel. This was prompted by objective reasons: strong pressure from the press, which discredited these bodies, the rapid decrease in wages, which in these bodies cannot be compensated by side earnings, the discrepancy between social guarantees and the standard of living and, most importantly, the squeezing out of the professional core of the Soviet orientation. All this led to a significant increase in crime, violations of public order, a decrease in the level of public safety of the population and an acceleration of the collapse of the USSR.

§3. The consequences of perestroika in the USSR

The consequences of perestroika are extremely ambiguous and multifaceted. Undoubtedly, the receipt by society of social and political freedoms, publicity and the reform of the planned distribution economy are positive moments. However, the processes that took place during the period of perestroika in the USSR in 1985-1991 led to the collapse of the USSR and the aggravation of ethnic conflicts that had been smoldering for a long time. The weakening of power, both in the center and in the regions, a sharp decline in the standard of living of the population, undermining the scientific base, and so on.

The collapse of the USSR was the result of mistakes in the ruling environment and the impact of external factors. Throughout the history of the Soviet state, attempts were made to reform the socialist system, but all the reforms were unfinished. In society, there was a gradual alienation of the people from power, it had no social support. Reforms, even extremely moderate, evolutionary ones, were resisted by real forces, the old relations of production, the established apparatus of management, ossified economic thinking.

The reforms were doomed for another reason as well. The transformations in the country's economy were not supported by the transformations in the political and social spheres, the vast majority of resources were directed to the development of the military-industrial complex.

Although it was necessary to develop science-intensive industries, to invest in the field of computer technology. Instead, there was an exorbitant development of heavy industry. In the field of foreign policy, the USSR made colossal expenditures on wars. The Cold War was costly, and the United States set itself the goal of exhausting the Soviet Union with a massive arms race.

Attempts by the leadership of the USSR to give efficiency to the bureaucratic system without significant structural changes, increased demands and control, the fight against individual vices, did not bring the country out of the crisis.

anti-alcohol perestroika glasnost gorbachev

Conclusion

The collapse of the Soviet system was inevitable, since while maintaining the foundations of the old system, the democratization of the old government institutions was reduced only to replacing them with outwardly new, but authoritarian institutions. The democratic Gorbachev regime was never able to overcome the internal conflict with the remaining foundations of the former political system.

All of the above does not detract from the significance of the perestroika that took place. The greatness and at the same time the tragedy of perestroika will be appreciated and studied over time. Ultimately, it was yet another breakthrough attempt, carried out by unusual and therefore ineffective methods.

The history of the state of the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics has come to an end. Numerous reasons for the death of a mighty country are only becoming the subject of study by historians. Mankind knows no other example of the death of a superpower without external military intervention. Utopia came to an end, because the very attempt to create an ideal state was doomed from the very beginning. Many scientists and historians predicted what a terrible price, years later, would have to pay for the experiment started in Russia.

It is naive to believe that Gorbachev or those leaders who met in December 1991. in Belovezhskaya Pushcha, predetermined the collapse of the USSR. The political system has outlived itself. This conclusion was made before 1991.

Bibliography

1. Gorbachev, M.S. Perestroika and new thinking for our country and for the whole world / M.S. Gorbachev. - M.: Politizdat, 1989. - 271 p.

2. Gorbachev, M.S. Persistently moving forward (Speech at a meeting of the activists of the Leningrad party organization on May 17, 1985) / M.S. Gorbachev. - M.: Politizdat, 1985.

3. Batalov E. Perestroika and the fate of Russia.

4. Butenko V. “From where and where are we going”, Lenizdat, 1990.

5. J. Boff "History of the Soviet Union"; M: International relationships, 1994

6. "Perestroika and the modern world", otv. ed. T.T. Timofeev; M: International relations, 1989.

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perestroika- the general name of the totality of political and economic changes carried out in the USSR in 1986-1991. In the course of perestroika (since the second half of 1989 - after the Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR), the political confrontation between the forces advocating the socialist path of development and parties and movements that link the future of the country with the organization of life on the principles of capitalism, as well as on issues of the future appearance of the Soviet Union, sharply escalated. Union, relations between union and republican bodies of state power and administration.

By the beginning of the 1990s, perestroika ended with an aggravation of the crisis in all spheres of society, the liquidation of the power of the CPSU and the collapse of the USSR.

Term

On April 8, 1986, M. S. Gorbachev visited Togliatti, where he visited the Volga Automobile Plant. In his speech in Togliatti, Gorbachev for the first time uses the word "perestroika" to refer to the socio-political process. The term was picked up by the media and became the slogan of the beginning of a new era in the USSR. Gorbachev's later published speech was called "Faster to rebuild, act in a new way":

1985-1989

background

In March 1985, MS Gorbachev became General Secretary of the CPSU Central Committee.

At the April Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU in 1985, supporters of Gorbachev became full members of the Politburo of the Central Committee of the CPSU: secretaries of the Central Committee of the CPSU E. K. Ligachev and N. I. Ryzhkov, Chairman of the KGB of the USSR V. M. Chebrikov; candidate member of the Politburo - Marshal of the Soviet Union, Minister of Defense S. L. Sokolov. A “Gorbachev majority” is forming in the Politburo.

Gorbachev's opponents were gradually withdrawn from the Politburo: G. V. Romanov (July 1985), N. A. Tikhonov (October 1985), V. V. Grishin (December 1985), D. A. Kunaev (January 1987), G. A. Aliev (October 1987), V. I. Dolgikh (September 1988), P. N. Demichev (September 1988), M. S. Solomentsev (September 1988).

They were replaced by proteges of the new General Secretary: A. N. Yakovlev, who was one of the most staunch supporters of reforms, V. A. Medvedev, A. I. Lukyanov, B. N. Yeltsin (later Yeltsin was expelled from the Politburo on February 18 1988). During 1985-1986, Gorbachev updated the composition of the Politburo by two-thirds, 60% of the secretaries of the regional committees and 40% of the members of the CPSU Central Committee were replaced.

Domestic politics

At the Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU on April 23, 1985. Gorbachev announced plans for broad reforms aimed at the comprehensive renewal of society, the cornerstone of which was called "acceleration of the country's socio-economic development."

At a meeting of the Politburo in April 1986, Gorbachev first announced the need for a Plenum on personnel issues. Only on it it was possible to make a cardinal decision to change the personnel policy. In June 1986, at a meeting with secretaries and department heads of the Central Committee of the CPSU, Gorbachev said: “Without a “small revolution”, nothing will come of the party, because the real power is with the party organs. The people will not drag around their necks an apparatus that does nothing for perestroika.”

At the XXVII Congress of the CPSU (February-March 1986), Gorbachev declared: “The question of expanding publicity is of fundamental importance for us. This is a political issue. Without glasnost, there is not and cannot be democracy, the political creativity of the masses, their participation in government. The media began to get more freedom in describing existing problems. The editors-in-chief were replaced in a number of newspapers and magazines, which subsequently acted as the most oppositional (“ New world”, “Moscow News”, “Arguments and Facts”). Since the end of 1986, previously banned literary works, films lying on the shelves were shown (the first of them was the film by Tengiz Abuladze "Repentance").

In May 1986, the V Congress of the Union of Cinematographers of the USSR opened, at which the entire board of the Union was unexpectedly re-elected. According to this scenario, later there were changes in other creative unions.

On September 4, 1986, the Glavlit of the USSR issued Order No. 29c, in which the censors were instructed to focus on issues related to the protection of state and military secrets in the press, and to inform party bodies only about significant violations in the ideological sphere.

By a resolution of the Central Committee of the CPSU of September 25, 1986, it was decided to stop jamming the transmissions of some foreign radio stations (Voice of America, BBC) and increase the jamming of others (Freedom, Deutsche Welle). On May 23, 1987, the Soviet Union finally stopped jamming the radio programs of the Voice of America and some other Western radio stations. The jamming of foreign radio stations in the USSR was completely stopped on November 30, 1988.

In 1987, the Interdepartmental Commission, headed by the Glavlit of the USSR, began its work, which began to review publications in order to transfer them from special storage departments to "open" funds.

The policy initiated by the 27th Congress was first called "perestroika" in June 1986. Now it included not only the acceleration of the country's economic development, which was originally proclaimed, but also deeper economic, political and social reforms. The new terminology reflected the deep and comprehensive nature of the changes that had begun.

Despite the mentioned individual steps, serious changes in the life of the country in 1985-86. did not have. The starting point for truly fundamental reforms should be considered the Plenum on personnel issues, held in January 1987. Its preparation began in the fall of 1986. After much debate and agreement, the final text of Gorbachev's report at the Plenum included a statement about the need for elections across the entire party vertical from several candidates (approval of candidates proposed from above was a common practice). In addition, it was pointed out that party functionaries are obliged to systematically report on the work they have done to those who elected them.

On January 27, 1987, the long-prepared Plenum opened. Gorbachev made a report "On perestroika and the personnel policy of the party." It identified the following areas:

• the beginning of the transformation of the CPSU from a state structure into a real political party (“We must resolutely abandon managerial functions unusual for party bodies”);

• promotion of non-partisans to leadership positions;

• expansion of "intra-party democracy";

• changing the functions and role of the Soviets, they were to become "genuine authorities on their territory";

• holding elections to the Soviets on an alternative basis (elections since 1918 were voting for a single candidate for each seat).

Alternative elections to local Soviets were held already in the summer of 1987 in many electoral districts, for the first time in the history of the USSR.

Gorbachev's speech at the January Plenum also devoted much space to glasnost. At the same time, he stated that "the time has come to start developing legal acts guaranteeing publicity." He stated: “We should not have areas that are closed to criticism. The people need the whole truth... More than ever, we need more light now, so that the party and the people know everything, so that we don’t have dark corners where mold would start up again.”

On January 23, 1988, the Pravda newspaper published an article by V. Ovcharenko “Cobras over gold”, which presented the materials of the investigation team that had been investigating the so-called Cotton case in Uzbekistan since 1983. Moreover, it was not about simple cotton growers, but about the highest elite of the party and state leadership of the republic. The article in Pravda became a signal for other Soviet newspapers. There is practically not a single newspaper left, both in the center and in the localities, in which the corruption of the local party leadership would not be exposed.

In December 1986, A. D. Sakharov and his wife E. G. Bonner were released from exile in Gorky. In February 1987, 140 dissidents were released from prison by pardon. They immediately became involved in public life. The scattered, small dissident movement, which ended its active existence in 1983, was again revived under the slogans of a democratic movement. Several dozens of informal, gradually politicized, poorly organized organizations appeared (the most famous of them was the Democratic Union formed in May 1988, which held two anti-communist rallies in Moscow in August-September 1988), the first independent newspapers and magazines.

In 1987-1988, such previously unpublished and banned works as “Children of the Arbat” by A. N. Rybakov, “Life and Fate” by V. S. Grossman, “Requiem” by A. A. Akhmatova, “Sofya Petrovna” by L. K. Chukovskoy, “Doctor Zhivago” by B. L. Pasternak.

In 1987, the first non-state television associations were created, such as NIKA-TV (Independent Television Information Channel) and ATV (Author's Television Association). In contrast to the dry semi-official program "Vremya", nightly releases of TSN appeared. The leaders in this regard were the youth programs "12th floor" and "Vzglyad", programs of the Leningrad television.

In 1987, in the film by Sergei Solovyov "Assa", the song of the rock group "Kino" "We are waiting for changes" appears on the words of Viktor Tsoi, which became a kind of unofficial anthem during perestroika.

major event 1988 was the XIX All-Union Party Conference of the CPSU, held in June-July. For the first time since the 1920s, the delegates really expressed their own opinions, sometimes allowing themselves to criticize the actions of the party leadership, and this was broadcast on television. The conference, initiated by Gorbachev, decided to reform the political system. A fundamental decision was made on alternative elections of deputies to the Soviets at all levels. Everyone should have the opportunity to be nominated as a candidate.

But at the same time, measures were outlined to preserve the role of the CPSU in the country. Previously, the supreme body of legislative power was the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, elected by the population according to the territorial and national-territorial districts. Now the Supreme Soviet was to be elected by the Congress of People's Deputies, ? who, in turn, were to be elected by the people. The remaining 750 people had to get out " public organizations”, while the CPSU elected the largest number of deputies. This reform was formalized into law at the end of 1988.

The Party Conference also decided to combine the positions of the head of the party committee and the chairman of the Council of the corresponding level. Since this leader was elected by the population, such an innovation was supposed to bring to the leading party posts people who were energetic and practical, able to solve local problems, and not just deal with ideology.

Nationalism and separatism

Conflict in Almaty

In December 1986, after the removal of the Kazakh D. Kunaev from the post of the first secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Kazakhstan and the appointment of the Russian G. Kolbin in his place, riots broke out in Alma-Ata. Demonstrations of Kazakh youth who opposed Kolbin (since he had nothing to do with Kazakhstan) were suppressed by the authorities.

Azerbaijan and Armenia

In August 1987, Armenians living in the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Region of the Azerbaijan SSR and making up the majority of the population in this autonomous region sent a petition signed by tens of thousands of people to Moscow to transfer the autonomous region to the Armenian SSR. In October 1987, protest demonstrations were held in Yerevan against incidents with the Armenian population of the village of Chardakhlu, north of Nagorno-Karabakh, where the First Secretary of the Shamkhor District Committee of the CPSU, M. Asadov, came into conflict with the villagers in connection with their protests against the replacement of the director of the state farm. an Armenian to an Azerbaijani. Mikhail Gorbachev's adviser Abel Aganbegyan speaks in defense of the idea of ​​resubordinating Karabakh to Armenia.

On February 13, 1988, the first rally was held in Stepanakert, at which demands were put forward for the annexation of the NKAR to Armenia. The Board of Directors created in the NKAO, which includes the heads of large enterprises of the region and individual activists, decides to hold sessions of city and district councils, and then convene a session of the regional Council of People's Deputies. On February 20, an extraordinary session of the People's Deputies of the NKAO addresses the Supreme Soviets of the Armenian SSR, the Azerbaijan SSR and the USSR with a request to consider and positively resolve the issue of transferring the NKAR from Azerbaijan to Armenia. On February 21, the Politburo of the Central Committee of the CPSU adopts a resolution according to which the demand for the inclusion of Nagorno-Karabakh in the Armenian SSR is presented as adopted as a result of the actions of "extremists" and "nationalists" and contrary to the interests of the Azerbaijan SSR and the Armenian SSR. The resolution is limited to general calls for the normalization of the situation, the development and implementation of measures for the further socio-economic and cultural development of the autonomous region.

On February 22, near the Armenian settlement of Askeran, a clash with the use of firearms occurs between groups of Azerbaijanis from the city of Aghdam, heading to Stepanakert "to restore order", and the local population. 2 Azerbaijanis were killed, at least one of them - at the hands of an Azerbaijani policeman. More massive bloodshed that day was avoided. Meanwhile, a demonstration is taking place in Yerevan. The number of demonstrators by the end of the day reaches 45-50 thousand. On the air of the Vremya program, the topic of the decision of the NKAR Regional Council is touched upon, where it is called inspired "extremist and nationalist-minded individuals". Such a reaction of the central press only increases the indignation of the Armenian public. On February 26, a rally is held in Yerevan, in which almost 1 million people participate. On the same day, the first rallies in Sumgayit begin. On February 27, Deputy Prosecutor General of the USSR A.F. Katusev, who was then in Baku, appeared on television and reported on the death of two Azerbaijanis in a skirmish near Askeran that took place on February 22.

On February 27-29, an Armenian pogrom takes place in the city of Sumgayit - the first mass explosion of ethnic violence in the newest Soviet history. According to official data from the USSR Prosecutor General's Office, 26 Armenians and 6 Azerbaijanis died during these events (Izvestia, 03.03.1988). Armenian sources indicate that these figures are underestimated. Hundreds of people were injured, a huge number were subjected to violence, torture and abuse, many thousands became refugees. A timely investigation into the causes and circumstances of the pogroms, the identification and punishment of provocateurs and direct participants in the crimes was not carried out, which undoubtedly led to an escalation of the conflict.

The resolutions of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR, the Council of Ministers of the USSR and the Central Committee of the CPSU, adopted in March 1988 regarding the interethnic conflict in the NKAR, did not lead to stabilization of the situation, since the most radical representatives of both conflicting parties rejected any compromise proposals. Most members of the regional Council of People's Deputies and the regional party committee supported the demands for the transfer of the NKAO from Azerbaijan to Armenia, which were formalized in the relevant decisions of the sessions of the regional Council and the Plenum of the regional party committee headed by G. Poghosyan. In the NKAR (especially in Stepanakert) a massive ideological indoctrination of the population unfolded - daily crowded processions, rallies, strikes of collectives of enterprises, organizations, educational institutions regions with demands for secession from Azerbaijan.

An informal organization is being created - the Krunk Committee, headed by the director of the Stepanakert Building Materials Plant Arkady Manucharov. Its stated goals are to study the history of the region, its ties with Armenia, and the restoration of ancient monuments. In fact, the committee assumes the functions of the organizer of mass protests. By the decree of the Supreme Council of the Azerbaijan SSR, the committee was dissolved, but it continued its activities. A movement to support the Armenian population of the NKAO is growing in Armenia. A Karabakh committee has been set up in Yerevan, whose leaders call for increased pressure on state bodies in order to transfer the NKAO to Armenia. At the same time, Azerbaijan continues to call for a "decisive restoration of order" in the NKAR. Public tension and national enmity between the Azerbaijani and Armenian populations are increasing every day. In summer and autumn, cases of violence in the NKAR become more frequent, and the mutual flow of refugees increases.

Representatives of the central Soviet and government agencies USSR. Some of the identified problems that have accumulated over the years in the national sphere are becoming public. The Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR urgently adopt a Resolution "On measures to accelerate the socio-economic development of the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Region of the Azerbaijan SSR in 1988-1995."

In May 1988, on the initiative of the Shusha Regional Committee of the CPSU, the deportation of the Armenian population from Shusha began. June 14, 1988 The Supreme Council of Armenia gives its consent to the inclusion of the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Region into the Armenian SSR. On June 17, 1988, the Supreme Soviet of Azerbaijan decides that Nagorno-Karabakh should remain part of the republic: “In response to the appeal of the Supreme Soviet of the Armenian SSR, the Supreme Soviet of the Azerbaijan SSR, proceeding from the interests of preserving the existing national-territorial structure of the country, enshrined in the Constitution of the USSR , guided by the principles of internationalism, the interests of the Azerbaijani and Armenian peoples, other nations and nationalities of the republic, considered the transfer of the NKAR from the Azerbaijan SSR to the Armenian SSR impossible.

In July 1988, many days of strikes by collectives of enterprises, organizations, educational institutions, mass rallies took place in Armenia. As a result of a clash between protesters and soldiers of the Soviet Army at the Yerevan Zvartnots airport, one of the protesters was killed. Catholicos Vazgen I addresses on republican television with an appeal for wisdom, calmness, a sense of responsibility of the Armenian people, and for an end to the strike. The call goes unheeded. Enterprises and organizations have not been operating in Stepanakert for several months, processions and mass rallies are held every day, the situation is heating up more and more. According to Izvestia correspondents, powerful support comes from Armenia - hundreds of people leave for Yerevan every day and, on the contrary, come to Stepanakert (an air bridge between these cities is organized for this, the number of flights sometimes reaches 4 - 8 per day).

As of mid-July, about 20 thousand people (more than 4 thousand families) left for Azerbaijan from Armenia. Meanwhile, the Central Committee of the Communist Party of Azerbaijan is trying to normalize the situation in the places densely populated by Azerbaijanis in Armenia. Refugees from Azerbaijan continue to arrive in the Armenian SSR. According to local authorities, as of July 13, 7,265 people (1,598 families) arrived in Armenia from Baku, Sumgayit, Mingachevir, Gazakh, Shamkor and other cities of Azerbaijan.

On July 18, 1988, a meeting of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR was held, at which the decisions of the Supreme Soviets of the Armenian SSR and the Azerbaijan SSR on Nagorno-Karabakh were considered and a Resolution on this issue was adopted. The Decree noted that, having considered the request of the Supreme Council of the Armenian SSR of June 15, 1988 on the transfer of the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Region to the Armenian SSR (in connection with the petition of the Council of People's Deputies of the NKAR) and the decision of the Supreme Council of the Azerbaijan SSR of June 17, 1988 On the unacceptability of transferring the NKAO to the Armenian SSR, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet considers it impossible to change the borders and the constitutionally established national-territorial division of the Azerbaijan SSR and the Armenian SSR.

In September 1988, a state of emergency and a curfew were introduced in the Nagorno-Karabakh Autonomous Region and the Aghdam region of the Azerbaijan SSR. In Armenia, the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the Armenian SSR decided to dissolve the "Karabakh" committee. However, the attempts of party and government bodies to calm the population have no effect. Calls for organizing strikes, rallies and hunger strikes continue in Yerevan and some other cities of Armenia. On September 22, the work of a number of enterprises and public transport in Yerevan, Leninakan, Abovyan, Charentsavan, as well as the Echmiadzin region was stopped. In Yerevan, along with the police, military units are involved in ensuring order on the streets.

In November - December 1988, mass pogroms took place in Azerbaijan and Armenia, accompanied by violence and killings of the civilian population. According to various sources, pogroms on the territory of Armenia lead to the death of 20 to 30 Azerbaijanis. According to the Armenian side, 26 Azerbaijanis died in Armenia as a result of ethnic offenses in three years (from 1988 to 1990), including 23 from November 27 to December 3, 1988, one in 1989, and two in 1990. . At the same time, 17 Armenians were killed in clashes with Azerbaijanis in Armenia. In Azerbaijan, the largest Armenian pogroms take place in Baku, Kirovabad (Ganja), Shamakhi, Shamkhor, Mingechaur, Nakhichevan Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. A state of emergency is introduced in a number of cities in Azerbaijan and Armenia. At this time, there is the most massive flow of refugees - hundreds of thousands of people from both sides.

In the winter of 1988-1989, the deportation of the population of Armenian villages in rural areas of the AzSSR is carried out - including the northern part of Nagorno-Karabakh (not included in the NKAO) - the mountainous and foothill parts of the Khanlar, Dashkesan, Shamkhor and Gadabay regions, as well as the city of Kirovabad (Ganja) . At the end of these events, the Armenian population of the Azerbaijan SSR is concentrated in the NKAR, the Shahumyan region, four villages in the Khanlar region (Getashen, Martunashen, Azad and Kamo) and in Baku (where it decreased from about 215 thousand to 50 thousand people during the year) .

the Baltic States

In the Estonian SSR, on August 23, 1987, about two thousand supporters of Estonian independence gathered in Hirve Park in Tallinn to mark the next anniversary of the signing of the Molotov-Ribbentropp pact.

September 26, 1987 in the newspaper of the Tartu City Committee of the Communist Party of Estonia "Edasi" ( "Forward"), a proposal for the economic autonomy of Estonia within the USSR was published, which received significant support in society. A corresponding program was developed, called Economically independent Estonia(est. Isemajandav Estonia, abbreviated IME(MIRACLE)).

On April 13, 1988, during a television talk show, Edgar Savisaar proposed the creation of the Popular Front (Est. Rahvarinne) - a socio-political movement that was supposed to contribute to the goals of Gorbachev's perestroika. Such a Popular Front was created.

On June 3, 1988, the "Lithuanian Movement for Perestroika" was created in the Lithuanian SSR, which became known as Sąjūdis.

On June 10-14, 1988, over one hundred thousand people visited the Singing Field of Tallinn. The events of June-September 1988 went down in history as the "Singing Revolution".

On June 17, 1988, the delegation of the Communist Party of Estonia at the XIX Party Conference of the CPSU made a proposal to transfer additional powers in all spheres of public, political and economic life to the republican authorities.

On September 11, 1988, the musical and political event "The Song of Estonia" was held on the Song of Estonia, which brought together about 300,000 Estonians, that is, about a third of the Estonian people. During the event, a call for Estonian independence was publicly voiced.

Economy

By the mid-1980s, all the problems of the planned economy that existed in the USSR became more acute. The artificially caused shortage of consumer goods, including foodstuffs, has intensified. The sharp decline in oil export earnings led to a shortage of foreign exchange for imports, including consumer goods. Budget revenues from oil exports decreased in 1985-1986 by 30%. According to a number of authors, the backlog of the USSR in the development of science-intensive sectors of the economy increased. So, A. S. Narinyani wrote in 1985: “The situation in Soviet computer technology seems catastrophic. ... The gap separating us from the world level is growing faster ... We are close to the fact that now not only will we not be able to copy Western prototypes, but in general we will not even be able to follow the world level of development.

At the April 1985 Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU, for the first time, it was openly declared about the economic and social problems. According to M. S. Gorbachev, the country was in a pre-crisis state. The situation was especially difficult in agriculture, where the loss of production amounted to about 30%. During the harvesting and transportation of livestock, 100 thousand tons of products were lost annually, fish - 1 million tons, potatoes - 1 million tons, beets - 1.5 million tons. mechanical engineering as the basis for the re-equipment of the entire national economy (the so-called "acceleration").

The program "Intensification-90" adopted in 1986 provided for the outstripping development of the sector of consumer goods by 1.7 times in comparison with other branches of engineering and, to a certain extent, was a continuation of previous reforms. At the same time, disproportions in investment policy led to the undermining of non-priority industries.

In addition to this, during the initial period of perestroika, several insufficiently thought-out decisions were made. In May 1985, the Decree of the Central Committee of the CPSU "On measures to overcome drunkenness and alcoholism" was issued. This decision aimed at solving both social and economic problems, primarily labor discipline, and was supposed to contribute to the growth of labor productivity and its quality. It was planned to reduce the production of vodka and other alcoholic beverages by 10% per year. By 1988, the production of fruit and berry wines was to be stopped. These measures led to a decrease in mortality in the country, their economic effect was negative and resulted in more than 20 billion losses in budget revenues, but several million lives were saved.

At the beginning of 1986, the XXVII Congress of the CPSU was held, at which whole line economic and social programs providing for a new investment and structural policy. In addition to "Intensification-90", it was planned to carry out such long-term programs as "Housing-2000" and others.

On November 19, 1986, the Law of the USSR “On Individual labor activity» On February 5, 1987, the Council of Ministers of the USSR issued a resolution "On the establishment of cooperatives for the production of consumer goods." On May 26, 1988, the USSR Law “On Cooperation in the USSR” was adopted, which allowed cooperatives to engage in any activities not prohibited by law, including trade.

On January 13, 1987, the Council of Ministers of the USSR adopted Decree No. 48, which allowed the creation of joint ventures with the participation of Soviet organizations and firms from capitalist and developing countries.

On June 11, 1987, the Decree of the Central Committee of the CPSU and the Council of Ministers of the USSR No. 665 “On the transfer of enterprises and organizations of sectors of the national economy to full self-financing and self-financing” was adopted. On June 30, 1987, the USSR Law “On the State Enterprise (Association)” was adopted, redistributing powers between ministries and enterprises in favor of the latter. Products manufactured after the fulfillment of the state order could be sold by the manufacturer at free prices. The number of ministries and departments was reduced, cost accounting was introduced into all branches of the national economy. However, granting the labor collectives of state enterprises the right to choose directors and granting enterprises the authority to regulate wages led to the dependence of directors of enterprises on the decisions of labor collectives and an increase in wages that was not ensured by the presence of an appropriate volume of goods on the consumer market.

One of the positive results of economic reforms was the cessation of the decline in the growth rate of national production and labor productivity in the mid-1980s. To a large extent, this was determined by the growth of investment, which, however, was accompanied by an increase in the budget deficit, which in 1985 amounted to 17-18 billion rubles, and in 1986 almost tripled. The deficit was partly caused by a reduction in foreign exchange earnings that continued with the Afghan war, the Chernobyl tragedy and losses from the anti-alcohol campaign, but the main reason for the reduction in budget revenues was the gradual decrease in the share of profits of enterprises and organizations deducted to the state (the corresponding figure fell from 56% in 1985 to 36% in 1989-1990).

Even more radical reforms were envisaged to be carried out in the period after the 19th party conference in 1988.

Foreign policy

Having come to power, M. S. Gorbachev set a course for improving relations with the United States. One of the reasons for this was the desire to reduce exorbitant military spending (25% of the USSR state budget).

However, his first meeting with US President Ronald Reagan in Geneva in the autumn of 1985 ended with a little binding solemn Declaration on the inadmissibility of nuclear war. On January 15, 1986, the "Declaration of the Soviet Government" was published, containing a program of nuclear disarmament by the year 2000. The USSR called on the leading countries of the world to join the moratorium on nuclear tests observed by the Soviet Union since the summer of 1985 and to gradually reduce different kinds nuclear weapons.

Some adjustments were made to Soviet policy in Afghanistan, where the USSR replaced the country's leadership in May 1986. The new General Secretary of the PDPA, M. Najibullah, proclaimed a course towards national reconciliation, adopted a new Constitution, according to which he was elected President of Afghanistan in 1987. The Soviet Union sought to strengthen the position of the new leadership in order to subsequently begin the withdrawal of Soviet troops from the country.

In October 1986, a meeting of Soviet and American leaders took place in Reykjavik, which marked the beginning of a new foreign policy of the USSR. M. S. Gorbachev suggested to R. Reagan to eliminate all medium-range missiles, while the Soviet Union made more concessions than the United States. Although the initiative of the Soviet leadership was not supported by the American side, this statement had a great international resonance.

In 1987, the Warsaw Pact countries worked out a new, purely defensive military doctrine, providing for the unilateral reduction of armaments to the limits of "reasonable sufficiency." Resistance to the new course in foreign policy by individual representatives of the military leadership was prevented by a purge in the army after the unhindered landing on May 28, 1987 on Red Square of the plane of a German citizen Matthias Rust. On May 30, 1987, General of the Army D.T. Yazov, who replaced S.L. Sokolov, became the new Minister of Defense.

The main ideas of the new foreign policy course were formulated by Gorbachev in his book Perestroika and New Thinking for Our Country and for the Whole World, published in 1987. According to Gorbachev, all ideological and economic disagreements between the world systems of socialism and capitalism must recede before the need to protect universal values. In this process, the leading countries must sacrifice their interests in favor of small countries, the common goals of peace and détente, because mutual goodwill is needed to survive in the nuclear age.

In addition to M. S. Gorbachev himself and the Minister of Foreign Affairs of the USSR E. A. Shevardnadze, A. N. Yakovlev played a major role in the development and implementation of the concept of “new thinking”, since September 1988 he held the position of chairman of the Commission of the Central Committee of the CPSU on international issues. politicians.

Since 1987, the intensity of the confrontation between the US and the USSR began to decline sharply, and in the next 2-3 years, the confrontation completely disappears. However, the weakening of the confrontation was achieved largely due to the pliability of the Soviet leadership. M. S. Gorbachev and his entourage made significant concessions when concluding the Treaty on Short Intermediate-Range Missiles (signed on December 8, 1987 at a meeting between R. Reagan and M. S. Gorbachev in Washington); by their passivity contributed to the overthrow of the communist regimes in Central and Eastern Europe in the second half of 1989; in particular, did not interfere with the unification of Germany.

1989-1990

Domestic politics

In March 1989, elections were held for the Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR, the first elections of the highest body of power in the USSR, in which voters were given a choice between several candidates. Discussion of pre-election programs (including on TV debates) was a real breakthrough towards freedom of speech and real political struggle.

The First Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR opened on May 25, 1989. On the very first day of the Congress, he elected Gorbachev Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR. The meetings of the congress were broadcast on television, and many citizens of the USSR followed them closely.

On the last day of the Congress, in a relative minority, radical deputies formed the Interregional Group of People's Deputies (co-chairs of the group: A. D. Sakharov, B. N. Yeltsin, Yu. N. Afanasyev, G. Kh. Popov, Anatoly Sobchak, V. Palm ). They advocated the acceleration of political and economic transformations in the USSR, for a radical reform of Soviet society, and in relation to their opponents - deputies who voted in accordance with the line of the Central Committee of the CPSU, they used the stable phrase "aggressively obedient majority".

On December 12 - 24, 1989, the II Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR took place. On it, the radical minority, which after the death of the Sakharov Congress was headed by Yeltsin, demanded the abolition of Article 6 of the Constitution of the USSR, which stated that "the CPSU is the leading and guiding force" in the state. In turn, the conservative majority pointed to the destabilizing disintegration processes in the USSR and, consequently, to the need to strengthen the powers of the center (the Soyuz group).

In 1989, the first significant strike of miners in the USSR began in the city of Mezhdurechensk.

In February 1990, mass rallies were held in Moscow demanding the repeal of Article 6 of the USSR Constitution. Under these conditions, Gorbachev, during the break between the II and III Congresses of People's Deputies of the USSR, agrees to the abolition of Article 6 of the Constitution, while at the same time initiating the question of the need for additional powers executive power. On March 15, 1990, the III Congress repealed Article 6, adopted amendments to the Constitution allowing for a multi-party system, introduced the institute of presidency in the USSR and elected M. S. Gorbachev as the President of the USSR (as an exception, the first President of the USSR was elected by the Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR, and not popularly) .

In March 1990, elections were held for people's deputies of the union republics (elections to the Supreme Soviets of the Baltic republics were held earlier, in February 1990) and to local Soviets of people's deputies.

With the adoption of the “Law of the USSR dated 09.10.1990 No. 1708-1 on public associations”, it became possible to officially register other than the CPSU political parties, the first of which were the DPR, SDPR and RPRF registered by the Ministry of Justice of the RSFSR on March 14, 1991.

In the RSFSR, unlike the other republics, a two-tier system of legislative bodies was created, similar to the one that existed at the level of the Union - people's deputies at the Congress elected from among their number a permanent Supreme Soviet. In the elections of people's deputies of the RSFSR, supporters of radical reforms, united in the Democratic Russia bloc, achieved significant success. The number of deputies who at the Congress of People's Deputies of the RSFSR in 1990-91 voted in at least 2/3 of the cases in support of radical reforms was 44% (in some important votes - more than half), and the proportion of communist conservatives was 39- 40%.

On May 14, 1990, the First Congress of People's Deputies of the RSFSR opened. On May 29, after a threefold vote, he elects B. N. Yeltsin Chairman of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR (B. N. Yeltsin received 535 votes, A. V. Vlasov - 467 votes).

On June 12, 1990, with 907 votes "for" and only 13 votes "against", the Congress of People's Deputies of the RSFSR adopted the "Declaration on State Sovereignty of the RSFSR". It proclaimed that “in order to ensure political, economic and legal guarantees of the sovereignty of the RSFSR, the following is established: full power of the RSFSR in resolving all issues of state and public life, with the exception of those that it voluntarily transfers to the jurisdiction of the USSR; the supremacy of the Constitution of the RSFSR and the Laws of the RSFSR throughout the entire territory of the RSFSR; acts of the USSR that conflict with the sovereign rights of the RSFSR shall be suspended by the Republic on its territory.” This marked the beginning of the "war of laws" between the RSFSR and the Center.

On June 12, 1990, the Law of the USSR "On the Press and Other Mass Media" was adopted. It forbade censorship and guaranteed freedom for the media.

The process of "sovereignization of Russia" leads November 1, 1990 to the adoption of the Decree on the economic sovereignty of Russia.

During the period under review, various parties were formed. Most of the parties operated on the territory of one union republic, which contributed to the strengthening of the separatism of the union republics, including the RSFSR. Most of the newly formed parties were in opposition to the CPSU.

The CPSU experienced a serious crisis during this period. The 28th Party Congress (July 1990) led to the exit of the most radical members, led by Yeltsin. The membership of the party in 1990 decreased from 20 to 15 million people, the communist parties of the Baltic States proclaimed themselves independent.

The IV Congress of People's Deputies of the USSR approved constitutional changes that gave Gorbachev additional powers. There was an actual resubordination to the President of the Council of Ministers of the USSR, now renamed the Cabinet of Ministers of the USSR. The post of Vice-President was introduced, for which the Congress elected G. I. Yanaev. Instead of V. V. Bakatin, B. K. Pugo became the Minister of Internal Affairs, E. A. Shevardnadze was replaced as Minister of Foreign Affairs by A. A. Bessmertnykh.

Economy

In 1989, a new Government of the USSR headed by N. I. Ryzhkov was formed. It included 8 academicians and corresponding members of the USSR Academy of Sciences, about 20 doctors and candidates of sciences. The new government initially focused on the implementation of economic reforms and fundamentally different methods of management. In this regard, the structure of the Government has changed significantly and the number of sectoral ministries has significantly decreased: from 52 to 32, that is, by almost 40%.

In May 1990, N. I. Ryzhkov spoke at a meeting of the Supreme Soviet of the USSR with a report on the economic program of the Government. Ryzhkov outlined the concept of transition to a regulated market economy developed by the "Abalkin Commission". It called for price reform. This performance led to emergency in Moscow trade: while Ryzhkov was speaking in the Kremlin, everything was sold out in the city: a monthly supply of vegetable and butter, a three-month supply of pancake flour, cereals sold 7-8 times more than usual, instead of 100 tons of salt - 200.

A wave of rallies swept across the country demanding not to raise prices. Mikhail Gorbachev, who repeatedly promised that prices in the USSR would remain at the same level, distanced himself from the government program. The Supreme Soviet of the USSR postponed the implementation of the reform, inviting the Government to finalize its concept.

In June 1990, the Supreme Soviet of the USSR adopted a Decree "On the concept of transition to a market economy", and in October 1990, "Main directions for the stabilization of the national economy and the transition to a market economy." The documents provided for the gradual demonopolization, decentralization and denationalization of property, the establishment of joint-stock companies and banks, and the development of private entrepreneurship.

In December 1990, the government of N. I. Ryzhkov was dismissed. The Council of Ministers of the USSR was transformed into the Cabinet of Ministers of the USSR, headed by Prime Minister V. S. Pavlov. But the activities of the Cabinet of Ministers in 1991 were reduced to a two-fold increase in prices from April 2, 1991 (they, however, remained regulated), as well as to the exchange of 50- and 100-ruble banknotes for banknotes of a new type (Pavlov's Monetary Reform). The exchange was carried out for only 3 days on January 23-25, 1991 and with serious restrictions. This was explained by the fact that shadow businessmen allegedly accumulated huge sums in large banknotes.

The economy of the USSR in 1991 was going through a deep crisis, which was expressed in an 11% decline in production, a 20-30% budget deficit, and a huge external debt of 103.9 billion dollars.

Nationalism and separatism

Armenia and Azerbaijan

On May 27, 1990, an armed clash between Armenian "self-defense units" and internal troops took place, as a result of which two soldiers and 14 militants were killed.

middle Asia

The pogroms of the Meskhetian Turks in 1989 in Uzbekistan are better known as the Fergana events. In early May 1990, a pogrom of Armenians and Jews took place in the Uzbek city of Andijan.

Chronology of events

1985

• May 7, 1985 Decree of the Council of Ministers of the USSR "On measures to overcome drunkenness and alcoholism, the eradication of home brewing."

1986

• May 23, 1986 Decree of the Council of Ministers of the USSR "On measures to strengthen the fight against unearned income."
• On November 19, 1986, the USSR Supreme Council adopted the USSR Law “On Individual Labor Activity”.

1987

• May 6, 1987 The first unauthorized demonstration of a non-governmental and non-communist organization - the Memory Society in Moscow.
• On June 25, 1987, the Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU considered the question "On the tasks of the party for a radical restructuring of economic management."
• June 30, 1987 The law of the USSR "On the state enterprise (association)" was adopted.
• On July 30, 1987, the “Law on the procedure for appealing to the court against unlawful actions of officials” that infringe on the rights of a citizen was adopted
• August 1987 First unlimited subscription to newspapers and magazines.

1988

• March 13, 1988 Article by N. Andreeva in "Soviet Russia" - "I cannot compromise my principles"
• May 26, 1988 The law "On cooperation in the USSR" was adopted.
• June 28 - July 1, 1988 XIX All-Union Conference of the CPSU, which adopted resolutions "On some urgent measures for the practical implementation of the reform of the political system of the country", "On the implementation of the decisions of the XXVII Congress of the CPSU and the tasks of deepening perestroika", "On the democratization of Soviet society and reform of the political system”, “On the fight against bureaucracy”, “On interethnic relations”, “On publicity”, “On legal reform”.
• July 28, 1988 Decrees of the Presidium of the USSR Armed Forces "On the procedure for organizing and holding meetings, rallies, street processions and demonstrations in the USSR" and "On the duties and rights of the internal troops of the USSR Ministry of Internal Affairs in protecting public order."
• September 5, 1988 The trial of Yu. M. Churbanov and others began (September 5 - December 30).
• September 30, 1988 - The largest "purge" of the Politburo since Stalin's times is held at the Plenum of the Central Committee of the CPSU.

1989

• January 1989 The first free nomination of candidates began. dep. USSR.

1990

• Spring 1990 The “Law on Property in the USSR” was adopted

Events after perestroika

International changes

• Withdrawal of medium and short range missiles from Europe
• Reduction of nuclear weapons
• The collapse of the USSR
• Disintegration of the socialist camp and the Warsaw Pact (according to the Protocol on the complete termination of the Treaty on July 1, 1991)
• Unification of Germany followed by the withdrawal of Soviet troops
• The end of the Afghan war with the withdrawal of Soviet troops (February 15, 1989)
• Restoration of diplomatic relations with Albania (July 30, 1990) and Israel (January 3, 1991)

Introduction of democratic freedoms

• Freedom of speech.
• Glasnost, the abolition of censorship.
• Pluralism of opinions.
• Freedom of movement of citizens abroad.
• The introduction of pluralism of power and the abolition of the one-party system.
• Permission of private enterprise and private property.
• The end of the persecution of the Russian Orthodox Church and other religious organizations.

National conflicts, wars and incidents

• Zheltoksan
• Karabakh war
• Sumgayit pogrom
• Khojaly massacre
• Georgian-Abkhaz conflict
• South Ossetian conflict
• Civil War in Georgia
• Civil war in Tajikistan
• Chechen conflict
• Transnistrian conflict
• Ossetian-Ingush conflict
• in Uzbekistan (conflict with the Meskhetian Turks)
• in Kyrgyzstan (conflict in Fergana)

Changes in the economy and domestic life

• Anti-alcohol campaign in the USSR 1985-1987.
• Spread of cooperatives, and subsequently - the introduction of free enterprise
• USSR miners' strikes in 1989
• Monetary reform of 1991 (Pavlovian reform)
• Washout of goods from stores, and subsequently - hyperinflation
• Reduction of the country's gold reserves by ten times
• Decline in economic growth from +2.3% in 1985 to recession (decrease) to -11% in 1991
• Devaluation of the national currency from 0.64 rubles per US dollar to 90 rubles per US dollar
• An increase in external debt by at least three times,

Changes in the CPSU

• Withdrawal of "elders" from the Politburo (09/30/1988)
• Withdrawal of "elders" from the Central Committee of the CPSU (24.04.1989)

catastrophes

Since the beginning of perestroika in the USSR, natural and man-made disasters have received great public outcry, although sometimes with serious delays due to attempts by party structures to hide information:

• July 10, 1985 - Aeroflot Tu-154 (Tashkent-Karshi-Orenburg-Leningrad flight), having entered a tailspin, crashed near the city of Uchkuduk (Uzbekistan). 200 people died. This is the largest air crash in terms of the number of victims that occurred on the territory of the USSR.
• April 26, 1986 - Chernobyl accident - several dozen died from exposure, 200 thousand people were resettled
• August 31, 1986 - shipwreck of the steamer Admiral Nakhimov 423 dead
• December 7, 1988 - Spitak earthquake 25,000 dead
• June 3, 1989 - Railway accident near Ufa 575 dead
• April 7, 1989 - the death of the nuclear submarine "Komsomolets" 45 dead

attacks

On March 8, 1988, the Ovechkin family hijacks a Tu-154 aircraft flying Irkutsk-Kurgan-Leningrad.

Criticism

There are several versions of why the restructuring did take place. Some scholars contend that perestroika was largely a breeding ground for property grabs by the Soviet elite, or nomenklatura, who were more interested in "privatizing" the state's vast fortune in 1991 than in keeping it. Obviously, actions were carried out both on one side and on the other. Let us dwell in more detail on the second catalyst for the destruction of the Soviet state.

As one of the possible versions, they even put forward the fact that the Soviet elite actually had a minuscule compared to what the elite of the poor banana republics has, and compared to what the elite of developed countries owns. Based on this, it is argued that back in the Khrushchev era, part of the party elite set a course for changing the Soviet system, with the goal of turning from managers into owners of state property. Within the framework of this theory, no one planned to create any free market economy.

Some researchers (for example, V. S. Shironin, S. G. Kara-Murza) see in the victory of perestroika primarily a product of the activities of Western intelligence services, with the help of their extensive network of “agents of influence” and external pressure, deftly using shortcomings and miscalculations in the economic and state building of the USSR for the destruction of the Soviet Union and the entire socialist camp. "Agents of influence" acted according to the scenario described by V. M. Molotov back in the early 1930s: " they sought to plan individual branches of industry in such a way as to achieve the greatest disproportion between them: they reduced planning assumptions and exaggerated difficulties, invested excessively large funds in some enterprises and retarded the growth of others. Making ineffective costs and deadening capital, ... they hoped to lead the Soviet state to a financial crisis and disruption of socialist construction a".

The Soviet way of life was formed under the influence of specific natural and historical circumstances. Based on these circumstances, the generations that created the Soviet system determined the main criterion for selection - the reduction of suffering. On this path, the Soviet system achieved successes recognized by the whole world, in the USSR the main sources of mass suffering and fears were eliminated - poverty, unemployment, homelessness, hunger, criminal, political and interethnic violence, as well as mass death in a war with a stronger enemy. For the sake of this, great sacrifices were made, but already from the 60s a stable and growing prosperity arose. An alternative criterion was the criterion of increased enjoyment. The Soviet way of life was created by generations that endured severe trials: accelerated industrialization, war and reconstruction. Their experience determined the choice. In the course of perestroika, its ideologists convinced the politically active part of society to change their choice - to follow the path of increasing pleasure and neglecting the danger of mass suffering. We are talking about a fundamental change, which is not limited to a change in the political, state and social structure (although it is inevitably expressed in them)

Although the directly indicated choice was not formulated (more precisely, attempts to formulate it were suppressed by the leadership of the CPSU, which determined access to the rostrum), the statements related to it were very transparent. Thus, the demand for a massive transfer of funds from heavy industry to light industry acquired the character not of an economic decision, but of a principled political choice. The leading ideologist of perestroika, A.N. Yakovlev, stated: “ A truly tectonic shift towards the production of commodities is needed. The solution to this problem can only be paradoxical: to carry out a large-scale reorientation of the economy in favor of the consumer ... We can do this, our economy, culture, education, and the whole society have long since reached the required initial level».

The reservation that “the economy has long since reached the required level,” no one checked or discussed, it was immediately discarded - it was only a tectonic shift. Immediately, even through the planning mechanism, a sharp reduction in investment in heavy industry and energy was carried out (the Energy Program, which brought the USSR to the level of reliable energy supply, was terminated). Even more eloquent was the ideological campaign aimed at curtailing the defense industry, created in the USSR precisely on the basis of the principle of reducing suffering.

This change in the criterion of living conditions contradicted the historical memory of the Russian people and the insurmountable restrictions imposed by geographical and geopolitical reality, the availability of resources and the level of development of the country. To agree to such a change was to reject the vote common sense. (S. G. Kara-Murza, "Manipulation of Consciousness")

In support of the above theory, the following statistics are given:

The ideologists of perestroika themselves, who are already retired, have repeatedly stated that perestroika did not have any clear ideological basis. However, some activities since at least 1987 cast doubt on this view. While at the initial stage the common expression “more socialism” remained the official slogan, an implicit change in the legislative base in the economy began, threatening to undermine the functioning of the previous planned system: the actual abolition of the state monopoly on foreign economic activity (for example, Decree of the Council of Ministers of the USSR dated December 22, 1988 No. 1526 “on approval of the regulation on self-supporting foreign trade organizations ...”), revision of the approach to the relationship between state bodies and industrial enterprises (USSR Law “On the State Enterprise (Association)” of June 30, 1987).

Methodological approaches to the analysis of perestroika

The Marxist theory of socio-economic formations, as it was interpreted in the USSR, proceeded from the existence of a universal scheme for the development of all countries and peoples, which meant the successive replacement by each other of primitive communal, slave-owning, feudal, capitalist, socialist, communist formations. Moreover, each subsequent formation was declared more advanced than the previous one. This scheme allowed that certain peoples could have bypassed or not known this or that social formation, but all of them in one way or another moved along a given path. But the transition from socialism to capitalism does not fit into this pattern.

The events that took place in the USSR after 1985 led to the fact that many of those who adhered to the formational approach abandoned it and turned to the search for other theoretical approaches to the historical process. Those who remained true to this orthodox Marxist approach (representatives of the communist and nationalist camps) assessed the historical changes that have taken place as "unnatural" and resort to explanations designed to prove the "artificial" nature of the collapse of socialism in the USSR. They see the reason for what happened in the intrigues of the United States, and the "agents of influence" of the United States in the USSR itself. This theory can be classified as a conspiracy theory due to its inability to recognize the real and underlying causes of events.

According to many representatives of Western Marxist thought, the method of replacing the capitalist formation with the socialist one, which was realized in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, does not correspond to the teachings of Marx and is in blatant contradiction with him. A striking example of such an interpretation is the work of the American socialist Michael Harrington. He wrote that Marx considered the transition from the capitalist formation to the socialist one as possible only when all the material and spiritual prerequisites for this mature. But the October Revolution of 1917 in Russia grossly violated this fundamental postulate of Marxism, and the result was sad: "the socialization of poverty could only establish a new form of poverty." Instead of overcoming the alienation of workers from the means of property, political power, spiritual values, the regime that triumphed in Russia imposed new forms of alienation, and therefore Harrington defined it as "anti-socialist socialism." From these assessments, it is concluded that the collapse of socialism in the USSR is a consequence of an attempt to jump over the historical stages of the replacement of capitalism by socialism, and the post-Soviet countries must go through those stages of "ripening" to socialism that the Bolsheviks tried to bypass. Moreover, such a prominent Marxist theorist as Karl Kautsky wrote as early as 1918 in connection with the revolution in Russia: “Strictly speaking, the ultimate goal for us is not socialism, but the destruction of every kind of exploitation and oppression, no matter whether class, gender or races ... In this struggle, we make the socialist mode of production our goal because, under modern technical and economic conditions, it is best remedy achieving our goal. If it were shown to us that we are mistaken and that the emancipation of the proletariat and humanity is achieved in general and even more expediently on the basis of private ownership of the means of production, as Proudhon already thought, then we would reject socialism, without at all rejecting our final goal. Moreover, we would have to do it in her interests. Democracy and socialism differ not in that the former is a means and the latter an end; they are both means to the same end."

Proponents of the theory of modernization draw attention to the fact that Soviet leaders unwittingly recognized Western civilization as the most advanced, at least technologically and economically, and therefore the USSR tried to copy Western technological and organizational patterns. In the course of perestroika, it became clear that the possibilities for reforming and ensuring progressive development on a socialist basis were exhausted for the USSR, and as a result, it became necessary to borrow capitalist mechanisms, as well as the democratic structure of the state.

In works of art

• In the 1990s, the well-known Russian emigrant philosopher Alexander Zinoviev wrote the book “The Catastrophe”, in which he described the process of the collapse of the centuries-old Russian state with the name of the USSR. After the publication of the book, the term "katastroyka" began to be used in the Russian media to refer to perestroika itself.