The role of the decision in the control system
The essence and basic concepts of the decision-making process
1.1. Decision making is the central element of managerial activity, in relation to which all others can be considered as auxiliary. It is possible to create an optimal structure of the organization, clearly regulate the rights, duties and responsibilities of structural units, select personnel, etc., but the management system will not be able to function until decisions are made.
The decision defines a clear program of actions that ensure the achievement of a particular goal. This program establishes the terms and boundaries of actions, the circle of performers and their tasks, methods and means, the results to be achieved and the criteria for their evaluation.
Consider the role of decisions in the management process. A characteristic feature of the management of any objects is the achievement of certain goals. This feature is the basis for the definition of the management process. The process of management is the purposeful influence of the subject of management on the object of management.
The term “process” itself is understood as a prescribed sequence of actions that logically relate to each other in order to ensure the achievement of the set goal. Simply put, it is an activity that transforms "input" and "output". For example, in production, a process is a means of converting raw materials into a finished product; in a management system, it is the collection and analysis of information, the logic of judgments, and, as a result, decision making. For a process to be clearly defined, it must be composed of a prescribed sequence of actions, the correctness of which is proven by the repeatability of its results. It is also necessary that the process can be described and communicate this description to others. It should not depend on the experience of the leader.
The control process consists of successive tasks cyclically repeated in time, which are called control functions. The allocation of functions in the control process can be performed with varying degrees of detail. The most common management functions are planning, organization (organization), motivation, communication and control. Each of these functions can be represented by a set of more particular functions.
The performance of general and particular functions requires decision making. For example, when planning, planned decisions are made, when organizing - organizational decisions, when controlling - operational decisions. Decision-making allows you to answer the questions: “what to do?” and “how to do?” arising from the implementation of other management functions.
In the scientific literature, there is an extended and narrow understanding of the role of decision making in management. In an expanded sense, decision-making is identified with the entire management process. In a narrow sense, decision making is interpreted as choosing the best solution from a set of alternative options. It is legitimate to note that an extended understanding cannot be acceptable, since it covers under the concept of decision-making their execution, control and analysis of results. This approach is contrary to the logical notion that the end result of the decision-making process is a decision. When analyzing a narrow understanding, one must take into account that solutions do not arise by themselves. The decision-making process includes not only the choice, but also the preparation for it, the determination of the necessary elements for its implementation.
Domestic researcher of decision-making problems L.G. Evlanov gives a definition of the category of decision-making, which removes the above contradictions. "Decision-making is a process that begins with the emergence of a problem situation and ends with the choice of a solution - actions to eliminate the problem situation" (3, p. 9).
Although the role of decision-making in management is high, it should not be exaggerated, because the improvement of management is not limited to improving the process of preparing and making managerial decisions. It is necessary to coordinate and joint development of all elements of the management process. Concerning common functions management - planning, organization, motivation, control, then decision-making acts as their component. In this sense, the role of decision-making in the management process is more limited than the role general analysis economic activity. Thus, decision making is a subfunction of management functions.
The solution performs a number of functions. guide the function of decisions is manifested in the fact that they are made on the basis of a long-term strategy for the development of an enterprise, are specified in a variety of tasks. At the same time, decisions are the guiding basis for the implementation of general management functions - planning, organization, control, motivation, which are implemented through decisions.
coordinating the function is reflected in the need to coordinate the actions of the performers in order to implement the decisions within the approved deadlines and of the appropriate quality.
Motivating (stimulating) the decision function is implemented through a system of organizational measures (orders, resolutions, orders); economic incentives (bonuses, allowances); social assessments (self-affirmation, achievements and self-realization of the individual).
The effectiveness of management depends on the decisions made on the implementation and correlation of management functions. With this in mind, the management decision becomes a real tool for achieving the goals of the organization.
Thus, the decision-making function plays a special role in the management process: it is necessary for the implementation of all other functions. Decision-making is the central element of administrative activity, in relation to which all others can be considered as auxiliary.
1.2. There are many definitions of decision making. Some authors understand decision making as a special kind of human activity aimed at choosing the best of the available alternatives. This definition points to the three essential elements of the selection process: a problem to be solved; a person or team (group) making a decision; several alternatives (options) from which a choice is made. In the absence of one of these elements, the selection process ceases to exist.
Other authors consider a managerial decision to be a social act prepared on the basis of a variant analysis and assessment, having a directive value, organizing the practical activities of the subject and object of management.
The decision-making system as an organized set of people, methods, information, means to achieve goals includes a set of concepts. Let's consider the main ones.
First of all, many researchers interpret decision making as task, which allows us to more clearly formulate its content, determine the technology and methods for its solution. A task decision making aimed at defining the best way actions to achieve the set goal. Under goal refers to the ideal representation of a desired state or outcome of an activity. If the actual state does not correspond to the desired one, then we can talk about the presence Problems . Development of a plan of action to eliminate Problems is essence of the decision problem. The problem may occur in the following cases:
System operation in this moment does not ensure the achievement of goals;
The functioning of the system in the future will not ensure the achievement of the set goals;
It is necessary to change the goals of the activity.
The problem is always associated with conditions, which are generically called the situation. The set of problems and conditions form problem situation . Identification of the problem situation provides the initial information for setting the task of making a decision.
Subject decision making is the decision maker (DM). This is a collective concept, it can include one person (individual, manager) or a group of people (administrative apparatus). The decision subject for collecting and analyzing information, as well as forming a decision, may involve experts- Problem solvers.
Decision making takes place in time, so the concept is introduced decision making process. This process consists of a sequence of steps and procedures and is aimed at eliminating the problem situation.
During the decision-making process, alternative (mutually exclusive) options solutions and evaluate their preference. Preference is an integral assessment of the quality of a solution based on an objective analysis (knowledge, experience, etc.) and a subjective understanding of the value and effectiveness of the solution.
To select the best solution, the subject of the decision determines either Criterias of choice, if it is an individual decision, or principle of consistency if it is a group decision.
The end result of a decision task is the decision itself. . In this way , solution- this is a prescription for action, this is a type of mental activity and a manifestation of the will of a person, it has characteristic features:
The presence of a choice from a variety of possibilities (the need for the existence of alternatives);
The choice is focused on the conscious achievement of goals (the choice is conscious and purposeful);
Choosing a decision ends the action.
The listed signs emphasize the features of the decision as a product of the mental-psychological act of a person.
The solution is called admissible, if it satisfies the restrictions (resource, legal, moral and psychological). The solution is called optimal(best) if it provides an extremum (maximum or minimum of the selection criterion for an individual decision) or satisfies the consistency principle (for a group decision).
The generalized characteristic of a solution is its efficiency. This characteristic includes the effect of the decision, determined by the degree of achievement of the goals, referred to the costs of their achievement, that is, the effectiveness of the decision is the degree of achievement of the goals, referred to the costs. The solution is the more effective, the greater the degree of achievement of goals and the lower the cost of their implementation.
So, decision-making is a complex process, on the one hand, a managerial decision is a necessary and mandatory element of management. On the other hand, the decision is the result of the manager's mental activity, which can be used to evaluate the effectiveness of managerial work.
1. What is the role of decisions in the management process?
2. Name the functions of decisions in management activities.
"Management decisions in the management process"
Introduction
1. Management process and management decisions
1.1 Meaning, essence and functions of decisions
1.2 Relationship between goals and decisions
1.3 The combination of formal and informal aspects in the development of solutions
2. Typology of management decisions
2.1. Solution classification
2.2. Typology of solutions
3. The main stages in the development of management decisions
4. Problems and solutions
5. Decision making and management
6. Monitoring and evaluation of the execution of decisions
Conclusion
List of sources used
Introduction
The efficiency of enterprises depends on the quality of management decisions. This determines the importance of mastering by each responsible employee of the management apparatus, and even more so by managers, theoretical knowledge and skills in developing management decisions.
The modern practice of preparing and executing decisions is replete with numerous errors at all levels of economic management. The reasons for this situation are varied, just as the economic life is diverse, consisting of many simple and complex situations that need to be addressed.
Ignorance or non-compliance with the technology of their development and organization of implementation occupies a decisive place in the composition of the causes of ineffective decisions. This is partly due to the lack of publications that comprehensively and in detail cover all the stages and procedures for developing solutions - the most important creative act of the management process.
In the domestic specialized literature on management, management decisions, as a rule, are presented in the form of a separate chapter, in a very aggregated manner. There are works that reveal this topic either in relation to a separate management function (for example, marketing), or paying attention to specific methods of developing solutions (heuristic, economic-mathematical, expert, network, etc.).
Of particular note is the cybernetic approach to decision making, known as decision theory. It is based on the global use of the mathematical apparatus and computer technology. This approach is implemented in the management of so-called large systems, in the performance of scientific research of an exploratory nature. Its use in everyday economic practice remains very limited. The current situation is explained, on the one hand, by the absence of the need to perform complex calculations to find optimal solutions, and on the other hand, by the lack of specific knowledge among those who develop and make decisions. This concerns the performance of multivariate calculations, the choice of alternatives, the use of special techniques in determining the course of action under conditions of uncertainty, risk, etc.
In view of the foregoing, this manual is distinguished by the integrity of the consideration of the problem of developing and improving the efficiency of managerial decisions. The four sections of the work outline the methodology and technology for developing solutions, including in situations of uncertain influence of external factors and risky ones. The possibility of using scientific methods (operations research, system analysis) is considered in relation to the peculiarities of the activities of enterprises. A chapter is highlighted that describes the characteristics and methods of building network models. The issues of organization and control of execution, approaches to evaluating the effectiveness of decisions and responsibility for their consequences are covered in sufficient detail.
When preparing the manual, an integrated approach was implemented, which is manifested in the coverage of the organizational, economic, mathematical, psychological, moral, ethical, legal aspects of the development of management decisions.
A very useful training manual for the training of managers, both managers and specialists. It equips them with theoretical knowledge of developing solutions in various business situations, aiming at obtaining a positive result.
Structure and content study guide are largely close to the basic program of the course "Development of a management decision".
1 MANAGEMENT PROCESS AND MANAGEMENT DECISIONS
1.1 Meaning, essence and functions of decisions
One of the many definitions of management is formulated as the collection of information, the development of decisions and the organization of their implementation, which emphasizes the high importance of decisions in management activities.
Analyzing the development of management, it is easy to see that his theory evolves to the development modern technologies decision making. Decisions define such areas of management as management based on performance control, management by extrapolation of the past into the future, management by predicting change, management by flexible emergency decisions.
World and domestic science in the XX century. a new field of knowledge has been developed - the theory of decision making. It arose in the course of solving military-strategic tasks and spread to the area of economic management. Today there is a scientific basis for making quality management decisions.
The development of effective solutions is a fundamental prerequisite for ensuring the competitiveness of products and firms in the market, the formation of rational organizational structures, the implementation of the correct personnel policy and work, the regulation of socio-psychological relations in the enterprise, the creation of a positive image, etc.
At the level of enterprises and associations, the number of documented decisions reaches an average of three hundred per year, at higher levels there are much more of them. Selective analysis shows that a quarter of all decisions (up to 25%) could not be taken because of their impracticability. This happens for a variety of reasons: the absurdity of goals, the complexity of control, the "streamlined" measures taken, the lack of deadlines for implementation, the assignment of responsibility to specific individuals. In essence, the above indicates a marriage in managerial activity, which gives rise to serious economic and social consequences (lost opportunity, waste of time and money, irresponsibility, reduced labor activity, decomposition of a healthy psychological climate in teams). Therefore, the organization of a deep study of management decisions, competent design and observance of the methodological principles for carrying out this work are of particular relevance.
The decision-making problem is fundamental, which is determined by the role that decisions play in any sphere of human activity. Studies of this problem are interdisciplinary, since the choice of a method of action is the result of a complex linkage of various aspects: informational, economic, psychological, logical, organizational, mathematical, legal, technical, etc.
Synthesizing various components, managerial decisions act as a way of constant influence of the control subsystem on the controlled one (the subject on the control object), which ultimately leads to the achievement of the set goals. This is a permanent link between the two subsystems, without which the enterprise as a system cannot function. This circumstance emphasizes the determining place of the managerial decision in the management process (Fig. 1).
General decision theory developed on the basis of mathematical methods and formal logic, is used in the economy and has the prerequisites for widespread use.
From the point of view of this theory, decision making is a choice from a set of the most preferable alternative. A decision means:
element of the set of possible alternatives;
normative document regulating the activity of the management system;
verbal or written instructions for the need to perform a specific action, operation, process;
regulated sequence of actions to achieve the goal;
something that reflects the implementation of the goal (material object, number, indicator, etc.);
response to a stimulus.
Fig.1. The place of managerial decisions in the management process
Philosophical science interprets the decision as the process and result of choosing a goal and a method of action.
In the economic literature, the concept of "decision" is also ambiguous and is considered as a process, as an act of choice and as a result of choice. A decision as a process involves a time interval during which it is developed, adopted and implemented. The decision as an act of choice includes the stage of decision-making in compliance with special rules. A decision as a result of a choice is a volitional act focused on the availability of alternatives, related goals and motives for the behavior of the person making the decision.
The authors of works on management in the definition of the concept of "managerial decision" include organizational, psychological aspects, the provisions of the general theory of decision making. Thus, the management decision is formulated as:
A product of managerial work, an organizational response to a problem that has arisen;
Selecting a specific course of action from possible options;
The choice of a previously meaningful goal, means and methods for achieving it;
The choice of a method of action that guarantees a positive outcome of a particular operation.
It seems the most successful, in a complex that takes into account certain aspects of this phenomenon, the following definition.
The managerial decision at the enterprise is a creative act of the subject of management (individual or group person), which determines the program of the team's activities to effectively resolve the urgent problem based on knowledge of the objective laws of the functioning of the controlled system and analysis of information about its state.
Based on the above definition, a number of aspects of the decision can be distinguished: organizational, psychological, social, informational, economic.
The organizational aspect is manifested in the organization, both the development and implementation of management decisions. At the same time, a number of its functions are realized, namely, guiding, coordinating and motivating, indicating the versatility of this concept.
The guiding function of decisions is manifested in the fact that they are made on the basis of a long-term strategy for the development of an enterprise and are specified in a variety of tasks. At the same time, decisions are the guiding basis for the implementation of general management functions - planning, organization, control, motivation, which are implemented through decisions.
The coordinating role of decisions is reflected in the need to coordinate the actions of executors in order to implement decisions within the approved deadlines and of the appropriate quality.
The motivating function of decisions is realized through a system of organizational measures (orders, resolutions, orders), economic incentives (bonuses, allowances), social assessments (moral and political factors of labor activity: self-affirmation of the individual, creative self-realization).
The effectiveness of each management decision largely depends on the performance and correlation of these functions both during its preparation and at the implementation stage. With this in mind, the management decision becomes a real tool for achieving the goals.
The social content of the chosen method of action is important, since it affects the life of the manager, everyone who works with him, that is, the interest of the organization, the team. Not every cost-effective solution can be socially effective. An example of this is the decision to increase labor productivity, associated with a violation of safety regulations, the deterioration of working conditions for workers. In this regard, a sense of responsibility should not leave the leader when choosing the final alternative. The miscalculation of a functional performer in the management apparatus (for example, an economist when determining the output rate for a worker) is of a private nature, a manager’s mistake in making decisions is a kind of marriage and affects the results of work, the policy of the enterprise as a whole, and in extreme cases can lead to bankruptcy, job losses, have profound social consequences.
A managerial decision in everyday practice is a product of managerial work, a person's mental activity.
1.2 Relationship between goals and decisions
The choice of the target orientation of the enterprise is a very urgent task, especially in modern economic life, which is characterized by high dynamism. Constant changes in the market make it necessary to set new goals, and, consequently, their implementation, which is reflected in the nature of the management process. In this regard, various types of management process are distinguished, although their strict observance in practice may not be.
Let us note some features of the target orientation in the development of managerial decisions. Determining the goals of solving a problem causes difficulty due to the fact that only simple solutions, as a rule, have one goal. In most decisions, there are several of them, and contradictions between them are possible. Along with the new ones, there are goals that should be kept. For example, when solving the problem of increasing production volumes or reducing costs, one should remember about ensuring product quality. In this case, the goal that you want to keep acts as a constraint. The choice of the way to achieve it often depends on how accurately the goal is formulated. This circumstance also has a psychological aspect: the more correctly the goal is set, the more confident the performers act in its implementation.
When setting goals, their entire range should be taken into account. However, the complexity of solving the problem and the number of considered alternatives largely depend on the number of goals. It is advisable to reduce the number of goals by simplifying and aggregating them. This can be achieved in the following way:
firstly, to identify the presence of subgoals to achieve the main one and exclude them from the list of goals. For example, when setting the main goal - making a profit, reducing the cost of production is a sub-goal, a means to achieve it;
secondly, to determine the reality of achieving the goals; targets that do not meet this condition shall be excluded;
thirdly, it is desirable to combine goals that coincide in their content.
If several goals are planned, then the main one is singled out, with respect to which the search for the optimal solution is carried out. At the same time, restrictions are set to achieve existing goals. For example, when determining the main goal - improving the quality of products - restrictions should be set for other goals: increasing the cost (since its unlimited growth is impossible) or the labor intensity of manufactured products.
Depending on the specifics of the situation, the size of the restrictions varies. She can:
a) reach a certain limit (maximum or minimum),
b) be equal to this limit (value) or be greater than it,
c) be equal to or less than this value,
d) lie in a certain interval.
When setting goals, it is necessary to proceed from the general interests of the system, taking into account the possible conflict of interests of individual subsystems of the enterprise, expressed for private purposes. In the presence of contradictory goals of this kind, they should be brought to the same scale of measurement and proceed from the priority of more general goals. This removes the inconsistency between particular goals and allows you to better evaluate alternative courses of action. The goal as a possible and actually achievable state of the control object or its individual parameters and the solution have both similar features and distinctive ones. But there is also a causal relationship between them (Table 1).
| Signs of similarity of goals and decisions | Signs of differences in goals and decisions | Signs of the relationship between goals and decisions |
| Focus on positive changes in the object of management | Goal setting is the fundamental basis of the organization of the enterprise | The goal is the initial stage of developing a solution |
| Orientation to the mission of the enterprise | Multivariate solution and unambiguous goal | The goal is the basis for monitoring the execution of the decision |
| Statement and acceptance at all levels of the management hierarchy | Efficiency of goals - expected in decisions - real | A goal without solutions is fruitless |
| Resource support | The risk is eliminated to the maximum | Decisions - a mechanism for achieving goals |
| Implementation Time Limits | The ability to adjust strategies to achieve goals is higher than decisions | The goal determines the choice of solution |
| The presence of a risk factor | Financing of goals is approximate, decisions are real | Goals determine the criteria for evaluating the effectiveness of solutions |
| Responsibility for choosing goals and implementing decisions | The choice of purpose is the creative work of man; choice of solution - possible with the use of a man-machine system The involvement of persons in the implementation of the decision and the choice of the goal can be radically different. |
1.3 The combination of formal and informal aspects in the development of solutions
The evolutionary state of management is reflected in its individual areas. Due to this circumstance, as well as its fundamental nature, such concepts as "decision" and "decision making" are interpreted ambiguously by the authors in the special literature. So, the latter - "decision making" - is considered by some authors in a broader sense, identifying it with the management process as a whole. In a narrow sense, this is a formally mathematicized direction for choosing the best solution.
The formal (mathematized) theory of decision-making within the framework of the normative approach analyzes how decisions should be made, under what conditions they will be the most rational. Deviations on the basis of psychological reality from the scheme of formal decision-making theory (ignoring alternatives, underestimating or overestimating objective probabilities, etc.) are taken into account when using the descriptive approach (discussed in more detail in subsequent sections).
Economic problems are relatively easy to formalize, so the economy, and management in it, is one of the promising areas. practical use decision theory.
Normative models are based on deductive logic, calculated on how we should think, not on what we actually think. This type of mathematical modeling comes from the idea of a "rational person". It is appropriate here; recall that, according to the well-known specialist in management N. Enkelman, "in the conflict between feeling and reason, feeling always wins." In this context, a feeling based on specific ideas about the object of control expresses the attitude towards the decision being made. The social environment in which the management process is carried out does not allow the manager to remain impartial to the content and quality of decisions. In addition, the manager will never get rid of the need to determine long-term and short-term goals, solve social and psychological problems in the team, and mathematical modeling is preceded by a qualitative study of the modeling object. Only in conditions of deep knowledge of the matter does mathematics become a powerful tool for making scientifically based decisions. Otherwise, in a figurative expression, it is like a mill - it grinds what is put into it. The decision-making process, however, is crowned with an informal aspect.
It follows from the foregoing that a manager must have versatile theoretical knowledge (management theory, organization theory, psychology, sociology, computer science, mathematics, other sciences) and practical skills, experience in developing management decisions to ensure their high quality and efficiency. And the mathematical apparatus, formalized structures of the theory of decision making and modern information technologies will contribute to this.
The well-known opinion that it is easy to make a decision - it is difficult to make a good decision, only emphasizes the complexity of the decision-making process, which combines formal and informal aspects, differing in the degree of human participation in it.
The greater the quantitative certainty of the phenomenon under study, the greater the proportion of the formal side in the development and decision-making. And vice versa, the less definitely what is happening, the worse the quantitative ideas about the phenomenon, the greater the share of people's creativity, the decision maker. However, at any level of quantitative description of events, the realization of the creative potential of a person, or a group of people, is mandatory.
The ratio of formal and informal aspects of the development of management decisions is very dynamic. It is due both to the development of the mathematical apparatus and technical means, and to the formalization of the psychophysiological processes of human behavior. With all the complexity of the latter, there are already decision-making models at the neural level. Based on the study of the nature of biological processes, neural mechanisms have been developed that occur in the human body (brain) during the decision-making procedure. A vivid confirmation of this is the chess match of the world champion G. Kasparov with artificial intelligence.
With the development of the scientific and technological revolution, the area of formal solution development is expanding, as evidenced by the creation of artificial intelligence based on electronic computers with a speed of hundreds of millions of operations per second.
According to experts, psychology is on the verge of a new stage of development - the creation of a mathematical apparatus for describing mental phenomena and human behavior associated with them. And this is very important, since psychological (informal) aspects are an integral part of the decision-making process that is not taken into account by normative models.
Attractive, on the one hand, and necessary, on the other, the idea of strengthening the significance of formal aspects in the development of solutions may turn out to be not so harmless in the foreseeable future (21st century). In the confrontation "man - artificial intelligence" an unexpected weakening of the position of man can be found. Hypothetically, this can be assumed as a result of the influence of a number of factors, including environmental ones, on the recreational state of a person, including his intellect.
Constant changes in the economic activity of the enterprise require a response in the subject of management to develop a wide variety of management decisions.
2 TYPOLOGY OF MANAGEMENT DECISIONS
2.1 Classification of solutions
The management process is dynamic. Changes in the external and internal environment give rise to the need to make a variety of management decisions. The main factors influencing the organization and functioning of the system are technical and technological, socio-economic and regional. In this regard, there are two groups of tasks that need to be solved: functional and situational. Functional - due to the division of labor in the organization, the powers of individual employees, and are mostly standard. Situational - appear as a result of violations of the interaction of subsystems and elements in the organization or under the influence of the above factors.
The speed of reaction to sudden changes in the situation (functioning conditions) characterizes the adaptive properties of the organization, the limit of its managerial capabilities. If the situation changes faster than the response time of the enterprise, then it becomes unmanageable.
There is a point of view that the structure of the enterprise should (taking into account the provision of adaptability) be formed based, firstly, on the traditionally functional specialization of managerial work, and secondly, on the basis of the need to have problem-oriented units. These situational units can function temporarily and, if necessary, be abolished.
According to the source of origin, decisions are divided into initiative, by prescription, by proposal "from below". In the psychological aspect, the most difficult situation is the development of a decision according to the prescription, since the systematic "imposition" of decisions can harm the manifestation of people's initiative.
In terms of legal execution, decisions can be in the form of a plan, order, order, instruction; according to the method of fixation, they are divided into oral and written. Classifying management decisions on the basis of legal registration, it is worth remembering the difference between an order and an order.
An order is the most categorical form of a decision, obliging subordinates to accurately fulfill the decision on time. The basis for the order are decisions or orders of the government, decisions of higher authorities, leaders.
An order is a kind of order aimed at solving private issues, coming not only from leaders, but also from other persons within their competence.
According to the decision-maker, individual, collective and collegiate decisions are distinguished. The first are accepted personally by the leaders, the second - by the collectives of enterprises and organizations, the third - by collegiate bodies (councils, boards, etc.).
According to the degree of uniqueness, solutions are divided into routine and innovative. The innovative solution is distinguished by the specifics of the decision-making process and the content of its individual stages.
By development methods, quantitative solutions are distinguished, including methods of mathematical programming. statistical methods; as well as heuristic solutions based on the use of logic, intuition, experience, knowledge of the decision maker. The use of mathematical programming methods allows finding the optimal solution according to predetermined parameters.
According to the degree of uncertainty, depending on the amount of information available to the decision maker, decisions are divided into deterministic ones - taken under conditions of certainty, in the presence of complete information; probabilistic - taken under conditions of probabilistic certainty (risk); uncertain - decisions made under conditions of uncertainty, i.e. in the absence of the necessary information on the problem.
Management decisions can also be classified from the standpoint of the number of goals under consideration - as single-purpose multi-purpose ones.
According to the degree of regulation, that is, how strictly the terms and conditions for the actions of subordinates are set, there are decisions regulating, orienting and recommending.
Regulatory decisions completely direct the activities of subordinates, excluding their independence. In this case, only unconditional diligence is required from subordinates.
Orienting decisions unambiguously determine only the main points of activity, while in solving secondary issues, the manifestation of the independence of subordinates is allowed.
According to the functional feature (content), decisions are economic, social, technical, political and organizational.
Economic decisions are associated with increasing the efficiency of production, improving the activities of the enterprise.
Social solutions are aimed at improving the working and rest conditions of the members of the enterprise team, etc.
Technical decisions are made to improve technical policy and production technology, reduce the use of manual labor, etc.
Organizational decisions are aimed at improving the organization of work of employees, improving standards, norms, and introducing NOT.
Considering that any management decision is based on preliminary forecasting, decisions are distinguished by periods of validity: long-term (long-term) and operational.
Promising solutions are defined in general terms, they only set directions for the implementation of a specific goal. In trade, for example, achieving an indicator of increasing labor productivity, quality of service, etc.
Operational decisions provide for measures to implement forecasts for the development of events (specific types of work, deadlines for their execution and performers).
2.2 Typology of solutions
The whole variety of managerial decisions, depending on the nature of the problems and methods for their resolution, can be divided into types.
So, taking into account the stereotypical situations and the method used, programmable and non-programmable solutions are distinguished. Programmable solutions usually include standard and repetitive solutions. According to foreign practice, about 90% of decisions are made according to typical situations. Such situations include those related to the purchase of goods, the formation of an assortment, the selection of personnel, etc. To solve them, a well-known model is used with the necessary adjustments for specific features. This is done because there is practically no absolute repetition of all the nuances of the situation.
Non-programmable decisions include decisions made in new situations. They can be one-time, creative in nature, largely depend on common sense and intuition (for example, the development of new technologies, products, the formation of a new structure).
The first level is routine decisions. They are adopted in accordance with the established mechanism and the existing program of action. It is important to study the specifics of the situation, correlate it with accumulated experience, and take responsibility for specific actions. There is no need to be creative, since all the solution procedures are known.
The second level is selective decisions. Initiative and freedom of action at this level is manifested within limited limits. For example, when evaluating various well-known alternatives and choosing the optimal ones.
The third level is adaptation solutions. They count on additional, unforeseen difficulties. As a rule, their development combines the use of a creative non-standard approach based on new ideas with previously developed capabilities. What matters is the personal initiative of the leader to find a new solution to a known problem.
The fourth level is innovative. Decisions at this level are associated with the complexity and unpredictability of events. This necessitates the adoption of extraordinary decisions containing innovations.
The nature of the problem also underlies the application of system analysis as one of the methods for substantiating decisions. There are three types of problems associated with its use:
Well structured;
Weakly structured;
Unstructured.
Structurization is understood as the possibility of quantitative expression of dependencies between the elements of the situation. The degree of formalization of the problem as a sign of typification was first proposed by American specialists G. Simon and A. Newell.
Well-structured problems are those in which the dependencies between the elements of the situation can receive numerical values or symbols. When solving well-structured problems, quantitative methods of analysis are used: linear, nonlinear, dynamic programming, queuing theory, game theory, the methodology of which is known as "operations research".
Weakly structured are the problems, as a rule, complex, differing, first of all, in the qualitative dependencies of the elements of the situation. However, weakly structured (or mixed) problems contain both qualitative and quantitative elements, with the former predominant. This is the scope of systems analysis. In solving such problems, the possibility of building models is excluded, but not always. It all depends on the specific situation and the acceptability of a combination of quantitative and heuristic methods.
Unstructured (or qualitatively expressed) problems contain only descriptions of the most important resources, features and characteristics, the quantitative relationships between which are completely unknown. Solving unstructured problems is carried out using heuristic methods based on intuition, logic, theoretical reasoning, experience, professionalism of a person or a collegial body of a management entity. This is the most numerous class of problems.
In the process of structuring problems, it is necessary to minimize the number of non-formalizable elements in such a way that the problem becomes more specific. The problem to be solved, regardless of its type, should be linked to the goals of enterprise management, and on this basis it is advisable to form a procedure for resolving the situation.
3 MAIN STAGES OF DEVELOPING MANAGEMENT DECISIONS
Decision making is one of the main components of any management process.
The decision-making process, while seemingly simple, is very difficult. It has a lot of subtleties and underwater reefs that are well known to professional managers.
Every organization develops managerial decisions. And in every organization, the practice of developing and making managerial decisions has its own characteristics, determined by the nature and specifics of its activities, its organizational structure, the current communication system, and internal culture.
However, there is a common characteristic for any decision-making process, wherever it is carried out. This is the single core that forms the development and decision-making technology used in any organization.
As we said above, one of the distinguishing features of decision theory is the presence in it of methods that allow processing both quantitative and qualitative (non-quantitative) information.
At the same time, in the decision-making process, much attention is paid to the use of expert assessment methods designed to work with both quantitative and qualitative information.
The main purpose of expert technologies is to increase professionalism and, consequently, the effectiveness of managerial decisions.
Today, an extensive literature is devoted to the problems associated with the adoption of managerial decisions. Here we will discuss the main stages of the process of developing and making managerial decisions used by any organization.
There are different ways of presenting the decision-making process, which are based on different approaches to management: systemic, quantitative, situational, etc.
We will focus on the situational approach, since it most fully reflects the problems that arise in managerial activities, is universal and, in essence, contains the main methods associated with making managerial decisions and used in other approaches.
Consider the main stages of the process of making managerial decisions. The block diagram of the control process is shown in fig. 2.
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Rice. 2 The main stages in the development of management decisions
The preparation of decisions is carried out on the basis of the totality of information about the situation, its thorough analysis and assessments.
The above enlarged block diagram shows the main stages of decision making and their technological sequence.
4 Problems and solutions
Problem (Greek) literally means a barrier, a difficulty, a task. As a concept, it expresses a question or set of questions that objectively arises in the course of the development of knowledge, the solution of which is of significant practical or theoretical interest. The whole course of the development of human knowledge can be represented as a process of transition from the formulation of problems to their solution, and then to the formulation of new problems.
It should be noted that there is no consensus on the definition of the concept of "problem" in the methodology of science. There are more than twenty definitions in the literature, in which, together, a number of common properties of problems are noted:
If this is a problem, then it should definitely be addressed;
The uniqueness of the situation of choice (situations absolutely do not repeat);
The presence of difficulties in considering alternatives for solving the problem;
Uncertainty of the consequences of the decision;
The need to take into account many factors;
The presence of a human factor (DM or a group of people developing a solution), and, consequently, subjective arguments about the choice of solutions.
The internal structure of the problem is made up of such elements as the subject, object, subject, connections, the purpose of the solution.
The subject of the problem characterizes the main contradiction that has arisen, which is expressed in the question: "What is the essence of the problem?"
The problem object answers the question: "Where did the problem occur?" (In the brigade, on the site, in the workshop, equipment, team, etc.).
The subject of the problem is the one who is associated with the problem (its social, intellectual element).
Problem links characterize both structural interelement links (limitations) and relationships with other problems. They are reflected in the question: "What is the problem?"
The description of the problem should reflect these elements. At the enterprise OOO "Lux" (director Ivanova I.V.), where I had an internship, the components of the problem are:
subject - excessive accumulation of commodity stocks;
object - the enterprise "Lux" LLC;
subject - Ivanova I.V., director;
communications - damage to goods, an increase in storage costs (internal), an increase in the organization's distribution costs (external);
the goal of solving the problem is to bring inventory to the standard, reduce trade costs, increase the profit of the store and the organization as a whole.
Each problem element can have sub-problems, i.e. lower level problems. It is extremely important to formulate the problem correctly in order to solve it. In this regard, it should be noted that a “name” and a “wording” are distinguished in the problem. They cannot be mixed. Name, i.e. the name of the problem, as a rule, is short, symbolic.
Problem solving, like management, is a process that includes a sequence of interrelated steps. The specific features of the problem are the key to its solution. For in-depth study and clarification of the features of the problem, it is useful to adhere to certain ways of thinking through it and the sequence of reasoning.
Ways to think through a problem include:
1. Dividing the problem into parts.
2. Identification of the main and secondary characteristics of the problem.
3. Establishment of causal relationships for all possible variants of the problem.
4. Forecasting and analysis of required actions.
One way to solve the problem is a control chart (Fig. 3). It is convenient to use to monitor the status of inventory. In this case, the lower limit of the volume of commodity stocks is determined, the tendency to violate which can lead to interruptions in trade, a decrease in trade turnover, a decrease in profits and other undesirable consequences.
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Rice. 3 Control card
The trend of changing the state of commodity stocks, aimed at violations of the upper value, contributes to overstocking, an increase in the volume of stocks of goods that are not in demand, is associated with financial losses for the trading enterprise. Experts advise that in order to solve problems, it is necessary to have a clear idea and understanding of it. To do this, it is useful to formulate and write it on paper so that the text takes only a few lines, is short, understandable. In doing so, the following relationships should be kept in mind. If it is necessary to make a decision in 5 minutes. Then you can’t spend more than 1 minute retelling the problem, if in 5 hours you can’t formulate the problem for more than 1 hour. The rest of the time should accordingly be used to find a solution.
The quality of managerial decisions largely depends on the conditions specific to a particular situation and the factors that directly affect it.
5 DECISION-MAKING AND MANAGEMENT
As you know, the main components of any organization are: people included in its composition; tasks for the solution of which this organization was created; management, which forms, mobilizes and sets in motion the potential of the organization to solve the problems facing it.
Any organization operates in an external environment. From the external environment, it takes the resources necessary for its functioning, and it gives the products created by it - the results of its activities - to the external environment.
In accordance with this concept, the functioning of the organization consists of three interrelated processes: obtaining resources from the external environment; manufacturing a product of its functioning; transfer of the product to the external environment.
The field of activity of various organizations is quite diverse. Therefore, naturally, various objects can act as resources and products.
So, let's say, raw materials, components, finances, personnel, information, etc. can act as resources, depending on the scope of the organization.
Similarly, the types of products that the organization transfers to the external environment are diverse.
Maintaining a balance between these three processes, as well as mobilizing the internal potential of the organization for their implementation, is carried out with the help of management.
This determines the important role that management plays in a modern organization.
One of the main features of management is the development and adoption of management decisions, which are an independent management act.
When making a decision, the manager uses all his professional work experience, knowledge, and the results of the analysis of a particular situation.
An effective managerial decision, as a rule, is a fusion of the professionalism of a manager and his managerial art, since, as leading experts in the field of managerial decision-making rightly believe, decision-making is both a science and an art.
The decision made by the manager is always aimed at the future, towards the future. Therefore, at the time of making a decision, it is far from always possible to predict with certainty the result of the action taken, to what extent it will ensure the achievement of the goal facing the organization.
Much in this case may depend on the nature of the change in the external or internal environment of the organization.
On the one hand, market conditions may change, a fundamentally new technology may appear that can significantly improve quality and expand functionality manufactured products, the demand for products manufactured by the organization may change, serious competitors may appear, etc.
No one can guarantee that during the implementation of the decision the legislation governing the activities of the organization will not change, new opportunities for raising capital will not appear, international contacts will not expand or, conversely, narrow.
On the other hand, the organization may face either new problems that make it difficult to implement the solution, or new opportunities that make it easier to achieve the organization's goal.
The future always contains an element of uncertainty. Therefore, the ability to anticipate the course of events in the field of his professional activity distinguishes a professional manager.
The problems associated with forecasting in making managerial decisions will be discussed further.
The higher the professionalism of a manager, the more effective decisions he makes, the higher the percentage of decisions that lead to the achievement of goals.
A good manager never shy away from problem solving.
A non-professional manager is characterized by either excessive caution in making decisions, when, fearing for the fate of his career, he is afraid to make a bold, sometimes the only possible decision, or making lightweight, insufficiently justified managerial decisions without understanding the real consequences that this or that may entail. other decision.
The reason for such hasty decisions is "the audacity of ignorance."
As rightly noted in the work, it is not uncommon for non-professional managers to seek to make only positive decisions that can contribute to their promotion and increase their authority.
Decisions that may turn out to be "unpopular", they tend to transfer either to a higher or lower hierarchical level, or to other horizontal structures.
Effective management is possible when it is carried out by a professional manager. Attempts to evade decision-making rarely lead to effective management.
An ostrich hiding its head under its wing will not protect itself from impending danger.
6 control and evaluation of the execution of decisions
Control occupies a special place among the factors that ensure the implementation of decisions, including the strength of its socio-psychological impact. The psychology of behavior must be taken into account both in relation to the person being checked and the performer. Difficulties are often found during the control:
Difficulty getting to the truth, avoiding bias, subjective interpretations;
Influence of ordinary human "weaknesses" excusable in other cases: excessive gullibility, superficial observations, fear of "offending" too deep study of a respected person, desire to meet the expectations of a senior boss,
Lack of competence;
Limited time for in-depth analysis;
Lack of civic courage to tell the truth.
Having given the order to implement the decision, the leader then focuses on feedback - incoming information about the progress of the implementation of the decision. But this does not solve the whole problem.
First, because the direct participant in the events evaluates them with elements of subjectivism. We evaluate ourselves more often not by the actual results of labor, but by the effort that was required. For the leader, an objective assessment of the actual state of affairs is important;
secondly, the manager is interested not so much in objective information of individual sections, but in comparative data on the degree of implementation of his decisions in different teams (divisions);
thirdly, the executive and control activities in terms of their goals, methods of action, motives, results and conditions are fundamentally different and require different professional training and experience;
fourthly, the manager needs different information at different times, for this, subordinates must ensure the continuous presentation of different information, which separates them from their direct obligations to implement decisions;
fifthly, the leader needs personal impressions, a live connection with the performers, in addition to information, no matter how objective it is.
What gives control to subordinates? It is designed to inform the performers about the progress of work, its compliance with the plans of the leader. The performer is interested in his efforts being noticed by others and appreciated. Recognition serves as an additional incentive for further efforts in the work, especially respected people, recognized authorities. The very fact of control (in a delicate form) serves as an argument that increases the prestige of the task performed by the performer, adds self-respect, confidence in their affairs.
Rational organization of the implementation of management decisions and systematic monitoring of compliance with the norms and conditions for high-quality implementation is a real prerequisite for ensuring their effectiveness.
Conclusion
So, the choice of a managerial decision should be dictated by the interests of the case, on the one hand, on the other hand, it should be based on taking into account the opinions of subordinates, or be consistent with the “think tank” (headquarters) of the enterprise, including deputies, heads of departments, leading specialists, etc. Moral responsibility in decision-making lies in the most complete consideration of all opinions (specialists, staff and collegiate bodies). Such a solution allows: to express a common opinion on a specific problem, promotes the manifestation of mutual assistance in achieving the goal, the implementation of a systematic approach, strengthening business activity, and improving the skills of employees. In addition, a common interest, a sense of significance and involvement of employees in the management process is brought up. It raises them in their own eyes; exacerbates the subjective sense of collective responsibility for the implementation of decisions.
In conclusion, a number of popular recommendations for making quality management decisions are proposed.
1. Before delving into the details, try to better imagine the problem as a whole.
2. Don't make decisions until you've considered all your options.
3. Doubt. Even generally accepted truths must be questioned.
4. Try to look at the problem before you from a variety of points of view, even if the chances of success seem minimal.
5. Look for a model or analogy that will help you better understand the essence of the problem being solved. It can be a mathematical formula, a graphic model (diagram, diagram), a verbal model, a reproduction, etc.
6. Ask as many questions as possible. Correctly question asked can radically change the content of the answer.
7. Don't be satisfied with the first decision that comes to your mind. Look for others. Find in both solutions weak spots, compare them with each other, choose the best.
8. Before making a final decision, talk to someone about your problems. It's always worth listening to what others have to say. They often see things that can escape your eyes.
9. Don't neglect your feelings. The importance of feelings, experiences and intuition cannot be underestimated. They usually don't cheat.
10. Remember: each person looks at life and the problems that arise from their own, special point of view.
The work considered a range of issues related to the procedure for the development, selection, implementation and evaluation of the effectiveness of management decisions. Deep study, comprehension, application in practice will increase the quality level of decisions made, and, consequently, the effectiveness of management activities.
List of sources used
1. Braddick W. Management in the organization. M.: Infra-M, 1997.
2. Vikhansky O.S., Naumov A.I. Management. M.: Firm "Gardarika", 1996.
3. Gudushauri G.V., Litvak B.G. Modern enterprise management. M.: EKMOS, 1998.
4. Korotkov E.M. Management concept. M.: ICC "DeKa", 1996.
5. Litvak B.G. Development of a management decision: Textbook. - 3rd ed., Rev. - M.: Delo, 2002. -392 p.
6. Milner B.Z. Organization theory. M.: Infra-M, 1998.
7. Rumyantseva Z.P., Salomatin N.A., Akberdin R.Z. etc. Management of the organization: Proc. Benefit. M.: Infra-M, 1997.
8. Starobinsky E.E. How to manage staff. M .: CJSC "Business School" Intel-Sintez "", 1998.
9. Personnel management of the organization: Textbook / Ed. AND I. Kibanova. M.: Infra-M, 1997.
10. Yukaeva V.S. Management decisions: Proc. Benefit. -M .: Publishing house "Dashkov and Co", 1999. -292 p.
FEDERAL STATE AUTONOMOUS EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION OF HIGHER PROFESSIONAL EDUCATION
FAR EASTERN FEDERAL UNIVERSITY
SCHOOL OF ECONOMICS AND MANAGEMENT
DEPARTMENT OF STATE AND MUNICIPAL MANAGEMENT
Course work
ROLE AND PLACE OF MANAGEMENT DECISIONS IN THE ORGANIZATION OF THE MANAGEMENT PROCESS, FUNCTIONS OF THE SOLUTION
Performed:
- Student gr. C1413
- Belts Alina Vladimirovna
- Scientific adviser:
- Assistant at the Department of State Medical University
Vladivostok
2011
Content
Introduction…………………………………………………………………………p.3
Chapter 1. Theoretical aspects of management in an organization………………...p.7
1.1. The most important elements of the management process……………………….p.7
1.2. Organization management system………………………………………..p. ten
Chapter 2
2.1. The concept and essence of a management decision………………………...p.15
2.2. Functions of a management decision and its role………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..p.19
Conclusion……………………………………………………………………..... p.23
List of used sources and literature…………………………p.26
Introduction
Not a single person, growing up, can not learn in practice the decision-making process. Both the ability to communicate and the ability to make decisions is a skill that develops with experience. Each of us during the day makes hundreds, and throughout life - thousands and thousands of decisions. However, in management, decision-making is a more systematized process than in private life. The stakes are often much higher. private choice of the individual affects, first of all, the life of his own and the few people associated with him. The manager chooses the course of action not only for himself, but also for the organization and other employees. Management decisions can have a profound effect on the lives of many people, at least everyone who works with the decision maker, and possibly everyone in the organization. If an organization is large and influential, the decisions of its top leaders can change the local environment in a decisive way. In order to understand how a leader can act more rationally and systematized, it is necessary to take a closer look at the whole generality of decision-making, its relationship with the management process and some characteristics of managerial decisions.
The concept of "solution" in modern life is very ambiguous. It is understood both as a process, and as an act of choice, and as a result of choice. The main reason for the ambiguous interpretation of the concept of "solution" is that every time this concept is given a meaning that corresponds to a specific area of research. The decision as a process is characterized by the fact that it, flowing in time, is carried out in several stages. The decision-making stage can be interpreted as an act of choice carried out by an individual or group decision maker using certain rules. The decision as a result of the choice is usually recorded in written or oral form and includes an action plan to achieve the goal. The decision is one of the types of mental activity and a manifestation of the human will. It is characterized by the following features:
- the ability to choose from a variety of alternative options (if there are no alternatives, then there is no choice and, therefore, there is no solution);
- the presence of a goal (an aimless choice is not considered a decision);
- the need for a volitional act of the decision maker when choosing a decision, since the person who makes the decision forms the decision through the struggle of motives and opinions.
Accordingly, management decision means:
1) search and finding the most effective, most rational or optimal variant of the leader's actions;
2) the end result of the formulation and development of management decisions.
A management decision is the result of analysis, forecasting, optimization, economic justification and choosing an alternative from a variety of options to achieve a specific goal of the management system.
There are a number of requirements for management decisions, which include:
1) comprehensive justification of the decision;
2) timeliness;
3) the necessary completeness of the content;
4) authority;
5) consistency with previous decisions.
The comprehensive validity of the decision means, first of all, the need to make it on the basis of the most complete and reliable information. However, this alone is not enough. It should cover the entire range of issues, the entirety of the needs of the managed system. This requires knowledge of the features, ways of developing a controlled, control systems and the environment. A thorough analysis of resource provision, scientific and technical capabilities, target development functions, economic and social prospects of the enterprise, region, industry, national and world economy is required. The comprehensive validity of decisions requires the search for new forms and ways of processing scientific, technical and socio-economic information, then the network for the formation of advanced professional thinking, the development of its analytical and synthetic functions. The timeliness of a managerial decision means that the decision made should neither lag behind nor outstrip the needs and tasks of the socio-economic system. A premature decision does not find a prepared ground for its implementation and development and can give impetus to the development of negative trends. Belated decisions are no less harmful to society. They do not contribute to the solution of already "overripe" tasks and further exacerbate the already painful processes. The necessary completeness of the content of decisions means that the decision should cover the entire managed object, all areas of its activity, all directions of development. In the most general form, a management decision should cover: a) the purpose (set of goals) of the functioning and development of the system; b) means and resources used to achieve these goals;
c) the main ways and means of achieving goals;
d) the timing of the achievement of goals;
e) the procedure for interaction between departments and performers;
f) organization of work at all stages of the implementation of the solution.
An important requirement of a managerial decision is the authority (authority) of the decision - strict observance by the subject of management of those rights and powers that are granted to him by the highest level of management. The balance of rights and responsibilities of each body, each link and each level of management is a constant problem associated with the inevitable emergence of new development tasks and defending the system of regulation and regulation from them. Making a managerial decision requires a high level of professionalism and the presence of certain socio-psychological qualities of a person, which not all specialists with professional education possess, but only 5-10% of them. The need to make a decision covers everything that the manager does, forming goals and achieving them. Understanding the role and place of management decisions is extremely important for the competent organization of the management process.
The relevance of the topic of this work is due to the fact that any enterprise always has a person or group of managers of this enterprise and most of the time of any manager is somehow connected with the preparation, adoption and rationalization of management decisions that play an important role in organizing the management process.
This topic was previously studied by Lazarev V.N. in the work "Management decisions", as well as Kolpakov V.M. in the work "Theory and practice of managerial decision-making".
The purpose of this course work is to study the management decision and its role in the organization of the management process. To achieve this goal, it is necessary to solve the following tasks:
1. Describe the concept of a managerial decision;
2. Consider the most important elements of the management process;
3. To study the main functions of the management decision.
The object of study of the course work is the management process, and the subject is the management decision, its place and role.
The structure of the course work is determined by the goals and objectives of the study. This work consists of an introduction, two chapters, four paragraphs, a conclusion, a list of references.
- Chapter 1. Theoretical aspects of management in the organization.
- The most important elements of the management process
Management is defined as a science, a field of human knowledge that studies the patterns of organization of the process by management and the relationships between people that arise during this process, determines methodological techniques that correspond to the specifics of the object of study, develops systems and methods for the active influence of the subject on the control object, and determines ways to anticipate and predict the studied processes. one
The main goal of management science is to study and improve the principles, structures, methods and techniques of management. The most important elements of the management process are the object and subject of management, which, by influencing each other, achieve certain results in management activities.
The subject of management is a physical or entity, from which the imperious influence comes, i.e. administrative and managerial personnel who, through interrelated management methods, ensure effective management activities. The object of management is individuals and legal entities that act as controlled, that is, those that are directed by the power of the subject of management.
Any control as a system consists of two subsystems: a controlled subsystem, which is the object of control, and a control subsystem - a subsystem that controls the system. The impact of the subject on the control object can be carried out only if certain information is circulated between the control and controlled subsystems. The management process, regardless of its content, always involves the receipt, transmission, processing and use of information.
The subject of control sends impulses to the control object - management commands that contain information on how the control object should function in the future. In order for a managerial connection to exist between two subjects and, accordingly, managerial interaction to be carried out, it is necessary that there be management relations between these subjects. They are the basis of the ability to exercise management, since it is they that determine the ability to develop management commands and the readiness to carry out these commands.
An important point is what motives induce the subject of management to leadership, what goals he pursues. In the case when the goals of management (the desired state of the object or the desired result of its functioning) coincide with the goals pursued by the subject of management, the latter is focused on the most effective management. 2 For this to exist, two conditions must be met:
a. the subject of management should not be able to achieve its goals through management activities, regardless of the achievement of management goals;
b. the degree of achievement by the subject of management of its goals through management activities is directly dependent on the degree of achievement of management goals.
The control object receives management commands and functions in accordance with the content of these commands.
It is necessary that the subject of management have levers of influence (motivation) on the object of management, with the help of which it can be encouraged to carry out management commands (this condition determines the fundamental possibility or impossibility of the subject of management to exercise control). In order for the motivation mechanism to lead to the achievement of the set goals, the following requirements must be met:
1) it must be effective throughout the entire operation of the control object and not weaken as the needs of the control object are met. This can be achieved through the integrated use of leverage, periodic alternation of methods of motivating orientation, stimulating effects on meeting stable long-term needs;
2) the incentive mechanism should link the level of incentives with the degree of achievement of the final goals.
At present, a fairly large arsenal of incentives that meet these requirements has been developed and widely used in the world management practice. The formation of a motivation mechanism should be built primarily on a situational basis.
Management is realized in the interaction of the subject and the object of management. From the subject (manager) comes command information (what, how, to what extent to do), and from the object (managed) - feedback information (after the execution of the command).
The intensity of commands and feedback depends on the type and nature of the subject and object of control. Command information is submitted in order to achieve certain goals, solve problems. Obtaining the result, of course, depends primarily on the quality, the method of presenting information, which, in essence, forms the basis of management methods, their diversity, classification according to criteria and characteristics.
The joint activity of people involves contacts between them and the exchange of necessary information. Only on this basis can people united in an organization achieve their goals. Any organization, including at the level of a small group, must have an appropriate system of communications (connections) that ensures the exchange of information between its members.
- Organization management system
According to the definition of Richard Kershner, a system is a set of components (animate or inanimate) that perceives some inputs and, being forced to respond to them in a certain way, produces such outputs that ensure the achievement of the goal - maximizing some function of inputs and outputs. 3
Systems are invented by humans to suit their specifically human purposes; they are purposeful, consciously constructed, rational, and can change in such a way that their value can increase.
Control systems are usually depicted using flow diagrams or block diagrams; the elementary system is shown in general form in fig. one.
Rice. 1. Main elements of the control system
The main parts of a control system are input, process or operations, and output. For any control system, the input consists of elements of the same nomenclature, which are classified according to their role in the process of the system. The first entry element is the one on which some process or operation is performed. This input is or will be the "load" of the system. The second input element of the control system is the environment that affects the operations of the system. The third entry element provides the placement and movement of system components. Inputs are also classified by content: material, energy, information, or any combination of them. Law can be seen as an input from the environment acting as a coercive force on people, or as a constraint that, for example, can influence the actions of an entrepreneurial organization. When people leave the system, then others must take their place, the need for replacement becomes an entrance. The second part of the system is the operations or processes through which the input must pass. The system must be designed in such a way that the necessary processes act on each input, at the appropriate time, to achieve the desired output.
The third part of the system is the output, which is its product or result, as well as two exit criteria that the system must satisfy: the stability and reliability of the system. These requirements define the norms of system operation: stability characterizes the continuity of the output, and reliability describes the consistency of the components during the operation of the system or the magnitude of the error. If you set such inputs to which the system cannot adapt, you can worsen its output. four
Systems can be described using the concepts of "input", "process" and "output". Since the purpose of the management system is to solve the problems of the organization, it can be represented as shown in Fig. 2.
Rice. 2. The main scheme of the organization management system
Organizational problems are inputs to a problem-solving process, or, equivalently, to a mechanism that produces solutions to organizational problems as an output. The components that carry out this process are usually people - middle-level managers.
The management model will develop solutions that increase the impact of the organization. But if the leader knows all possible alternatives to solving the problem, and if he can confidently choose the one solution with the greatest return, then the solution found will be optimal.
According to Harry Hood, the design process consists of:
1) identifying and defining the problem;
2) building a model;
3) collection and use of data.
The first step in defining a problem is to create a diagram of the proposed system, whether starting from an existing system or creating a new one. To draw up such a scheme, it is necessary to consider the output and return of the system.
The return is understood as the benefit or satisfaction received by a person as a result of the functioning of the system, or, something the same, the return is what the system should optimize.
When identifying a problem, the environment, the general area of feasible or acceptable solutions, and performance measures are also considered. Describing the environment means nothing more than identifying the various expected inputs to the system. The domain of feasible or acceptable solutions is determined by reviewing the relationship between the methods available and the function of the system. The performance meter shows how the various parts of the system should be evaluated.
The second stage of system design is the construction of a model (or representation) of the proposed system. The ability to simulate a system is critical to effective design. The initial schematization can reflect the system in sufficient detail, including all subsystems included in the system as a whole, which makes it possible to analyze the form of input, process and output of each subsystem.
The third stage of designing a control system is to simulate the functioning of the system to determine its strengths and weaknesses. In the course of simulating the operation of the system, experimental data will appear that will make it possible to improve the design of the system. At the same time, the correspondence between the collection and analysis of data and the model should be constantly maintained. 5
Since the development of decisions is specialized in specific areas of the organization's activities to be managed (for example, decisions can be made on the sale of products, production, personnel), the previous diagram can be represented as a series of parallel diagrams (Fig. 3).
Rice. 3. Specialization of the management process by areas of activity of the organization
The decision-making process can be broken down into specialized functions, and therefore an organization may have managers who will perform only a greater or lesser part of the decision-making function. The decision-making process can be represented as a sequence of processes.
In the management system, a person problem-solving, must be provided with a set of pre-prepared programs. Or, if the inputs are diverse, he can choose on his own initiative from a set of decision alternatives the methods or means that he will use. If the control system is expected to develop solutions that allow reaching a certain average value of a certain value, and if this value is not achieved, then this indicates the need for more detailed program development.
- Chapter 2. Management decision as a result of management activities.
- 2.1. The concept and essence of a management decision
The daily activities of a manager include setting goals, forecasting, planning, organizing, motivating and stimulating, controlling and regulating, evaluating performance, and interpreting results. Each of his steps is accompanied by the adoption of a managerial decision. Decision making is the main type of intellectual activity of a manager.
A decision is the result of choosing alternatives from a variety of possible options and is a guide to action based on a developed project or work plan.
In management, the concept of "solution" includes three aspects of study:
decision as a process that can be decomposed into a number of stages, actions, characterized by a length in time;
decision as an act of choosing one of several developed options for action;
decision as a result of choice and as a guide to action for the manager and his subordinates, for which the manager is responsible.
However, not every decision made by a manager in the workplace is considered by management. From the point of view of science and practice of effective management, managerial decisions are the product of a manager's activities.
A managerial decision is a choice of a previously meaningful goal, as well as means and methods for achieving it.
In management, the term "decision" has two meanings:
* development of managerial influence (solution of the managerial problem);
* decision making, i.e. establishing that this action (impact) should be carried out.
Each management decision has:
* subject - the person or body that makes this decision;
* object - a labor collective or individual workers who must carry out this decision;
* subject - the content of the decision, which determines what and how to do. 6
Thus, a managerial decision is an act of the subject of management that determines the activity and behavior of the object of management.
Through decisions, the goals of the organization's activities are established, the functions, rights and responsibilities of employees are determined, the rules of conduct in organizations are established, a system of incentives and penalties is developed, and resources are distributed. A managerial decision is a complex act that includes legal, social, psychological and other aspects. In legal terms, a managerial decision is an imperious act of the subject of management, in which he expresses his will, implements the rights granted to him to dispose of the labor of subordinate workers, material and monetary resources in the interests of production. A managerial decision is a social act, as it is made by people and affects the interests of people. Management decision is a psychological act, as it is the result of human mental activity.
From an informational point of view, a decision is the result of information processing, during which a choice is made among the possible options for the optimal solution.
Decision making, as well as information exchange, is an integral part of any managerial function. The need for decision-making arises at all stages of the management process and is associated with all areas and aspects of management activities. The decision-making process quite accurately reflects the real problems, relationships and connections that have developed in the organization, and their (decisions) continuous sequence characterizes the continuity of the management process. Moreover, only the study of the process of developing and implementing decisions makes it possible to evaluate the content side of management, since the content of management is revealed in the content of the decisions made. That is why it is so important to understand the nature and essence of decisions. 7
Understanding the nature of management decisions depends primarily on the point of view of the place and role of the decision-making process in the management system.
From the standpoint of system analysis, the management process is, in essence, the process of solving the problems of the organization that arise as it functions and develops.
The management cycle always begins with setting goals and identifying problems, continues with the development and adoption of the necessary solution, and ends with the organization and control of its implementation. The analysis of the result obtained, or, more precisely, the assessment of the degree of achievement of the set goal, serves as a source for identifying new problems and making new decisions, thus resuming the management cycle.
This shows that any control implements a well-defined sequence of three main stages:
- determines the state of the managed object (problem identification);
etc.................
Decision-making is inherent in any type of activity, and the effectiveness of the work of one person, a group of people or the entire people of a certain state may depend on it. The crisis in the quality of management decisions at all levels of government and management is closely related to the established approaches to building management systems, the level of training of specialists - managers in higher educational institutions.
As mentioned earlier, a decision is the result of a choice from a variety of options, alternatives, and is a guide to action based on a developed project or work plan.
Therefore, a managerial decision is the result of a specific managerial activity of a manager. The purpose of such a decision is to ensure movement towards the tasks assigned to it. Therefore, the most effective management decision will be the choice that will actually be implemented and will make the greatest contribution to the achievement of the ultimate goal.
The decision can be viewed as a product of managerial work, and its adoption as a process leading to the emergence of this product.
The solutions used in management are diverse. Different levels of management create many solutions. For them there are many various reasons and grounds, they apply to a wide variety of objects and regulate various social relations and relationships that arise in all spheres of the economy and public life.
From a functional point of view, a management decision is both the process of selecting acceptable measures from a given set, and the process of developing measures that were not previously set. In addition, the decision-making process includes the collection and processing of the necessary information, the coordination and approval of measures, the legal execution of the decision act, etc. The constituent elements of the theory of managerial decision-making are the generation of alternative solutions, their implementation, control and analysis of the results of actions.
The process of activity of a controlled system, as a rule, is dynamic and the conditions for its functioning as a control object are constantly changing, which leads to the emergence of various situations and problems. The latter are the most dangerous for the socio-economic organization and are accompanied by a violation of the process of functioning of individual elements of the controlled object. All this necessitates the adoption of decisions that cover all aspects of its activities.
Thus, the role of decision-making in management is a key one. The manager's reaction to the information received on the communication channels about the presence of a problem is expressed in a managerial decision, which defines the goal, content and methods of influencing the control object. Therefore, the decision permeates and determines all subsequent actions in the management cycle. The wrong decision is fraught with catastrophic consequences, often with severe social consequences, which is especially true for both public and private structures. The price of making a decision acquires especially great weight in conditions of instability and high risk, which determines the further development of the organization, or its crisis. Therefore, in my opinion, it is important for the future manager to understand this issue, which will be the subject of the next chapter in this study.
The most important reserve for increasing the efficiency of all social production is to improve the quality of decisions made by managers.
The concept of "solution" in modern life is very ambiguous. It is understood both as a process, and as an act of choice, and as a result of choice. The main reason for the ambiguous interpretation of the concept of "solution" is that each time this concept is given a meaning that corresponds to a specific area of research.
The decision is one of the types of mental activity and a manifestation of the human will. It is characterized by the following features:
The ability to choose from a variety of alternative options: if there are no alternatives, then there is no choice and, therefore, there is no solution;
Presence of purpose: aimless choice is not seen as a decision;
The need for a volitional act of the decision maker when choosing a decision, since the decision maker forms a decision through the struggle of motives and opinions. [Golubkov E.P.]
Accordingly, under management decision(UR) is understood as:
2) timeliness;
4) authority;
d) the timing of the achievement of goals;
Consistency with earlier decisions also means the need to observe a clear causal relationship of social development. It is necessary to observe the traditions of respect for the law, regulations, orders. At the level of an individual firm, it is necessary for the implementation of consistent scientific, technical, market and social policy, accurate functioning of the production apparatus.
The main factors
Upon acceptance purely intuitive solution people are based on their own feeling that their choice is the right one. There is a “sixth sense” here, a kind of insight, visited, as a rule, by representatives of the highest echelon in power. Middle managers rely more on the information they receive and the help of computers. Despite the fact that intuition sharpens along with the acquisition of experience, the continuation of which is precisely a high position, a manager who focuses only on it becomes a hostage to chance, and from a statistical point of view, his chances for right choice not very high.
Solutions, based on judgment,
1.2. The essence of management decisions.
The most important reserve for increasing the efficiency of all social production is to improve the quality of decisions made by managers. The concept of "solution" in modern life is very ambiguous. It is understood both as a process, and as an act of choice, and as a result of choice. The main reason for the ambiguous interpretation of the concept of "solution" is that each time this concept is given a meaning that corresponds to a specific area of research.
The decision as a process is characterized by the fact that it, flowing in time, is carried out in several stages. In this regard, it is appropriate to talk about the stages of preparation, adoption and implementation of decisions. The decision-making stage can be interpreted as an act of choice carried out by an individual or group decision maker (DM) with the help of certain rules.
The decision as a result of the choice is usually recorded in written or oral form and includes a plan (program) of actions to achieve the goal.
Accordingly, under management decision(UR) is understood as:
1) search and finding the most effective, most rational or optimal variant of the leader's actions;
2) the end result of setting and developing SD.
Of greatest interest is the process of making and implementing decisions as a successive change of interrelated stages, stages various activities leader, revealing the technology of mental actions, the search for truth and the analysis of delusions, the ways of moving towards the goal and the means to achieve it. Only this approach makes it possible to understand the fixed act of a managerial decision, the sources of its origin.
There are a number of requirements for management decisions, which include:
1) comprehensive justification of the decision;
2) timeliness;
3) the necessary completeness of the content;
4) authority;
5) consistency with previous decisions.
The comprehensive validity of the decision means, first of all, the need to make it on the basis of the most complete and reliable information. However, this alone is not enough. It should cover the entire range of issues, the entirety of the needs of the managed system. This requires knowledge of the features, ways of development of the controlled, control systems and the environment. A thorough analysis of resource provision, scientific and technical capabilities, target development functions, economic and social prospects of the enterprise, region, industry, national and world economy is required. The comprehensive validity of decisions requires the search for new forms and ways of processing scientific, technical and socio-economic information, that is, the formation of advanced professional thinking, the development of its analytical and synthetic functions.
The timeliness of a managerial decision means that the decision made should neither lag behind nor outstrip the needs and tasks of the socio-economic system. A prematurely made decision does not find a prepared ground for its implementation and development and can give impetus to the development of negative trends. Belated decisions are no less harmful to society. They do not contribute to the solution of already “overripe” tasks and further exacerbate the already painful processes.
The necessary completeness of the content of decisions means that the decision should cover the entire managed object, all areas of its activity, all areas of development. In its most general form, a management decision should cover:
a) the goal (set of goals) of the functioning and development of the system;
b) means and resources used to achieve these goals;
c) the main ways and means of achieving goals;
d) the timing of the achievement of goals;
e) the procedure for interaction between departments and performers;
f) organization of work at all stages of the implementation of the solution.
An important requirement of a managerial decision is the authority (authority) of the decision - strict observance by the subject of management of those rights and powers that are granted to him by the highest level of management. The balance of rights and responsibilities of each body, each link and each level of management is a constant problem associated with the inevitable emergence of new development tasks and the system of regulation and regulation lagging behind them.
Consistency with earlier decisions also means the need to observe a clear causal relationship of social development. If necessary, earlier decisions that have come into conflict with the new conditions for the existence of the system should be canceled. The appearance of conflicting decisions is primarily a consequence of poor knowledge and understanding of the laws of social development, a manifestation of a low level of managerial culture.
The adoption of SD requires a high level of professionalism and the presence of certain socio-psychological qualities of the individual, which not all specialists with professional education but only 5-10% of them.
The main factors that influence the quality of a management decision are: the application of scientific approaches and principles, modeling methods to the management system, automation of management, motivation for a quality decision, etc.
Usually in making any decision there are three points in varying degrees: intuition, judgment and rationality.
Solutions, based on judgment, are in many ways similar to intuitive ones, probably because at first glance their logic is poorly visible. But still, they are based on knowledge and meaningful, in contrast to the previous case, the experience of the past. Using them and relying on common sense, with the correction for today, the option that brought the greatest success in a similar situation in the past is selected. However, common sense is rare among people, so this method of decision-making is also not very reliable, although it captivates with its speed and cheapness.
Another weakness is that the judgment cannot be correlated with a situation that has not taken place before, and therefore there is simply no experience of solving it. In addition, with this approach, the manager tends to act mainly in those directions that are familiar to him, as a result of which he risks missing a good result in another area, consciously or unconsciously refusing to intrude into it.
A powerful factor that activates the decision-making process are modern office equipment, including computer networks. This requires a high level of culture in the field of mathematics and programming, the technology of using technical means. However, the process of making a decision, choosing a specific option will always be creative and depend on the individual.
1.3 . The procedure for developing the adoption of the implementation of management decisions.
Methods for developing and making decisions are usually divided into two main classes: modeling methods and methods of expert assessments.
Modeling methods are based on the use of mathematical models to solve the most common management problems. The use of such methods is possible in cases where the criteria of the situation under study and the expected results of the decision can be evaluated in a single equivalent, i.e., quantitatively.
Building models for the development and adoption of multi-criteria decisions is a complex procedure and consists of the following main steps:
Formulation of the problem. At this stage, the purpose of the forthcoming research is formulated.
Determination of the criterion for the effectiveness of the analyzed situation. A list of indicators characterizing the situation under study and the possible consequences of the decision is compiled.
Quantitative measurement of factors influencing the situation under study. Evaluation scales of criteria are being developed.
Construction of a mathematical model of the situation under study. Based on information about preferences that characterize the degree of influence of various factors on the quality of the decision, the main decision rule (model) is built.
Quantitative solution of the model and finding the optimal solution. There are several possible options for the decision to be made. Then, using the constructed model, the possibility of using each of the options to achieve the goal is checked. Based on the test, the most optimal of the proposed options is selected.
Checking the adequacy of the model and the solution found for the analyzed situation.
Correction and updating of the model (performed in case of inconsistencies and deviations at the sixth stage).
There are models of game theory, queuing theory, inventory management and linear programming.
Most business transactions can be considered as actions performed in the face of opposition. Counteractions include such factors as competition, lack of resources, violation of contractual obligations, accidents, natural disasters, strikes, etc. Therefore, when making a managerial decision, a manager should strive to choose an alternative that allows reducing the degree of resistance.
The essence of inventory management models is reflected in their very name. Any organization must maintain an optimal inventory level of its resources to avoid downtime and disruptions. excessive high level inventory increases the reliability of the organization and saves it from losses associated with downtime and failures. On the other hand, the creation of stocks requires additional costs for storage, transportation, insurance, etc. In addition, excess stocks bind working capital and hinder profitable investment of capital.
Programming models are used to find optimal solutions in situations of scarcity of resources in the presence of competing needs. Most of the developed optimization models are reduced to linear programming problems. If it is necessary to include the time factor in the analysis, dynamic programming models are used. In situations characterized by the probabilistic influence of factors on the result of the operation, models of mathematical statistics are used.
Methods of expert assessments are used to develop and justify decisions that are not amenable to quantitative analysis. The essence of these methods lies in the fact that the decision is made by obtaining answers from specialists to the questions posed.
Expert assessment methods are widely used to solve unstructured problems. Unstructured problems have the following specific features:
They are problems of unique choice, that is, they have new features compared to previously encountered problems;
Such problems are associated with uncertainty in the estimates of alternative solutions, which is due to a lack of information;
Estimates of alternative solutions to the problem are of a qualitative nature;
The overall assessment of alternatives can be obtained only on the basis of the subjective preferences of the persons taking
Estimates of alternatives for individual criteria can only be obtained from experts in the process of conducting an examination.
For the examination, an organizational group is usually formed to provide conditions for the effective work of experts. The main tasks of this group are:
Formulation of the problem;
Development of the examination procedure;
Formation of a group of experts;
Conducting a survey of experts;
Processing, formalization and interpretation of the received
information. Heuristics are rules, strategies, and other tools based on experience that significantly limit the search space for solutions. Heuristics can be used:
Repeatability of intermediate results;
Contradictions in the conditions of tasks;
The implausibility of the obtained solutions.
Purposeful search is an alternation of two main procedures: generating (i.e., putting forward various solutions within one step) and limiting (i.e., evaluating the results obtained from the point of view of their acceptability as a solution).
1.4. Criteria for evaluating managerial decisions.
The goal is the ideal result of the activity in the future. Let us agree to call the purpose of the decision those specific results that are expected to be obtained after the implementation of this decision under certain conditions and a fixed period of time. In this case, the goal always lies outside the system. It reflects the reaction of the environment to the system. The quality of the goal determines the success or failure of the organizational-production system. We list the known requirements for the goal. The goal should be:
unambiguously formulated and understandable to performers;
measurable, feedback can be used for this;
Realistic and achievable in a timely manner;
associated with the reward system, since the goal should motivate the performer's actions in the direction necessary to achieve it;
compatible with the goals of individual groups of performers;
is formalizable. Formalization of goals is a very complex process. There are no formal methods for synthesizing goals, but it should be remembered that the formulation of goals is heuristic in nature.
The main goal for commercial organizations is profit maximization. In this case, additional limiting requirements can be formulated, for example, ensuring safety, preventing damage, etc.
There are three types of organizational goals:
1. official goals - determine the general purpose of the organization, are declared in the charter or regulation on the organization, and are also declared publicly by the head. They explain the need for the organization for society, have an external focus and perform an important protective function, creating an appropriate image for the organization;
2. operational goals - determine what the organization is actually doing in the current period, and may not completely coincide with the official goals for a specific period.
3. operational goals - direct the activities of specific employees and allow you to evaluate their work. They are even more specific and measurable than operational ones; such goals are formulated in the form of specific tasks for individual groups and performers.
The practice of developing, making and implementing management decisions in an organization.
2.1 . The powers of employees of the management of the organization in making managerial decisions.
E This is one of the most important tasks that any enterprise faces and is aimed at improving the working conditions of the staff. The feeling of an employee that he manages and makes an important contribution to the development of his organization enhances work motivation and positivity affects job satisfaction.
The participation of the company's employees in campaign management is one of the most important motivational programs, for the successful implementation of which it is necessary to follow a number of important rules:
- the obligatory participation of employees in management should come from top management. The manager must tell the employees that the success of the organization will depend on their participation;
- the participation of employees in management structures should be supported by personnel policy measures. For example, the evaluation of a manager's work should also include an evaluation of the involvement of employees in management;
Middle management and line managers should be involved in the development of structures for staff participation in managerial decision making. Such participation of employees can be carried out at the level of any working groups that are formed at this enterprise. Members of such groups discuss the adoption of a decision on a particular issue. At other levels, the principle of representation is used. AT last years very many companies began to apply and develop systems of delegation of authority and empowerment. Delegation of authority refers to a certain process when a certain part of all duties or powers is transferred to another group of personnel, which is at a lower organizational level. With regard to the delegation of authority, indicators of its volume are used (the number of tasks for which the delegation is carried out) and the degree of completeness of the powers presented (the employee's right to make certain decisions). For example, the distribution of work by a manager among employees of an enterprise.
The formation and use of the delegation system is directly related to the construction of the basic and most important principles of a market economy. The use of delegation of authority allows you to:
- develop the potential of any employee and realize their abilities not only in their core activities. Needs for self-affirmation, significance, self-development and improvement are realized;
- significantly increase motivation labor activity employees and their loyalty, as they, on the one hand, see that the management of the enterprise has confidence in their professionalism, on the other hand, they try to satisfy some of their needs due to the fact that their powers have been significantly expanded.
- effectively operate the organization in today's difficult conditions, in which the manager is not able to control the performance of all duties by all subordinates;
- to involve the staff as much as possible in the process of progressive changes, the introduction of innovations and creative projects, to develop initiative and entrepreneurship;
- release the manager from routine work to solve strategic problems.
2.2. Applied technologies for the development of management decisions.
Information electronic management solution
Modern information systems of organizational management are designed to assist specialists, decision makers, in obtaining timely, reliable, required quantity information, creation of conditions for the organization of automated offices, holding operational meetings with the use of computers and means of communication, accompanied by sound and video sequences. This is comprehended by the transition to a new information technology. New information technology is a technology that is based on the use of computers, the active participation of users (non-professionals in the field of programming) in the information process, a high level of friendly user interface, the widespread use of general and problematic application packages, the ability for the user to access remote databases and programs through computer networks.
The ever-expanding scope of personal computers, their mass use, including in economic work, has led to the need to form the most effective organizational forms for the use of computer and other organizational technology. Currently, local and multilevel computer networks, which are integrated computer data processing systems, are being created and successfully operate on their basis. Integrated computer data processing systems are designed as a complex information technology and software complex that supports a unified way of presenting data, a unified way of user interaction with system components and providing information and computing needs of specialists in their professional work. Particular importance in such systems is given to the protection of information during its transmission and processing.
Integrated data processing systems are created on the basis of combining and rigidly linking all the elements included in the system in informational, technical and software aspects. At the same time, the most unified technological scheme of the system functioning should be built using common structures and data models clearly designed for different tasks.
The implementation of the principle of integration, accumulation, storage and systematic updating of data for timely and reliable information service for numerous users of the system is laid down at the stage of its creation. It is taken into account that the users of information will be not only specialists in a specific problem area of management activity (accounting, planning, management, marketing, etc.), but also programmers involved in the creation and operation of software. Therefore, in the process of designing databases (DB), a thorough multifaceted study of the subject area, its elements, the relationship between them is carried out, and the features of the data circulating in it as a particularly important resource are identified. A general structural diagram of databases is created in the form of multilevel models, conditions are formed and a database management system (DBMS) is selected. At the same time, agreements are established between users on the composition and structure of data; ways are being developed to filter erroneous data entered into the system; the necessary differentiation of access to arrays of specific users is established; the requirements of data independence from programs and their physical location, etc. are satisfied.
In the process of implementing information technology, databases and DBMSs need systematic maintenance, maintenance (maintenance). These functions are performed by the database administrator, i.e. one or more specialists who are responsible for the functioning of the integrated database, have the authority to adjust the management of the database, are responsible both for the integrity of the data and for protecting them from unauthorized access, and the reliability of the system.
Increasing requirements for the efficiency of information exchange and management, and, consequently, for the urgency of information processing, led to the creation of multi-level systems for organizational management of objects, such as, for example, banking, tax, supply, statistical and other services. Their information support is supported by networks of automated data banks, which are built taking into account the organizational and functional structure of the corresponding multi-level economic object, machine maintenance of information arrays. This problem in new information technologies is solved by distributed data processing systems using communication channels for information exchange between databases of different levels. Due to the complication of database management software, the speed increases, the protection and reliability of information is ensured when performing economic calculations and developing management decisions.
The need for analytical work during the transition to the market, in the context of the restructuring of economic relations, the formation of new organizational structures operating on the basis of various forms of ownership, grows immeasurably. There is a need to accumulate facts, experience, knowledge in each specific area of managerial activity. At the forefront is the interest in a thorough study of specific economic, commercial, production situations in order to make promptly economically sound and most acceptable decisions. This problem is solved as a result of further improvement of integrated information processing, when a new information technology begins to include a knowledge base in the work. The knowledge base is understood as a complex, detailed modeled structure of information sets that describe all the features of the subject area, including facts (actual knowledge), rules (knowledge of the conditions for decision-making) and meta-knowledge (knowledge about knowledge), i.e. knowledge concerning the ways of using knowledge and its properties. The knowledge base is the most important element of the expert system created at the workplace of a specialist, which acts as a store of knowledge in a specific area of professional activity and an adviser to a specialist when conducting a study of economic situations and developing control actions.
A promising direction in the development of computer technology is the creation of software tools for outputting high-quality sound and video images. The technology of forming video images is called computer graphics. Computer graphics combines the processes of creating, storing and processing object models and their images using a computer. This technology has penetrated into the field of economic analysis and modeling of various kinds of structures, is indispensable in production, in advertising, and makes leisure activities entertaining. Images formed and processed with the help of a digital processor can be demonstration and animation. The first group, as a rule, includes commercial (business) and illustrative graphics, the second - engineering and scientific, as well as those associated with advertising, art, games, when not only single images are displayed, but also a sequence of frames in the form of a movie (interactive version ). Interactive computer graphics is one of the most progressive directions among new information technologies. This direction is undergoing rapid development in the field of the emergence of new graphic stations and in the field of specialized software tools that make it possible to create realistic three-dimensional moving images comparable in quality to video film frames.
The software and hardware organization of the exchange of text, graphic, audio and video information with a computer is called multimedia technology. This technology is implemented by special software tools that have built-in support for multimedia and allow it to be used in professional activities, educational, educational, popular science and gaming fields. Thanks to this technology, real prospects open up in economic work for using a computer to voice images, as well as understanding human speech, conducting a dialogue with a computer in his native language
2.3. The procedure for the implementation of management decisions.
A managerial decision is the result of a specific managerial activity of management. Decision making is the basis of management. Development and decision-making is a creative process in the activities of managers at any level, including:
- development and goal setting;
- studying the problem on the basis of the information received;
- selection and justification of criteria for efficiency (effectiveness) and possible consequences of the decision;
- discussion with specialists of various options for solving the problem (task); selection and formulation of the optimal solution; decision-making;
- specification of the decision for its executors.
Management technology considers a management decision as a process consisting of three stages: decision preparation: decision making; solution implementation.
At the stage of decision-making, the development and evaluation of alternative solutions and courses of action, carried out on the basis of multivariate calculations; the criteria for choosing the optimal solution are selected; choosing and making the best decision.
At the stage of implementation of the decision, measures are taken to specify the decision and bring it to the executors, control over the progress of its implementation, make the necessary adjustments and evaluate the result obtained from the implementation of the decision. Each management decision has its own specific result, so the goal of management activity is to find such forms, methods, means and tools that could help achieve the optimal result in specific conditions and circumstances.
Management decisions can be justified, made on the basis of economic analysis and multivariate calculation, and intuitive, which, although saving time, contains the possibility of errors and uncertainty.
Managers are obliged to constantly and comprehensively study incoming information in order to prepare and make management decisions based on it, which must be coordinated at all levels of the intra-company hierarchical management pyramid.
The amount of information that needs to be processed to develop effective management decisions is so great that it has long exceeded human capabilities. It is the difficulties of managing modern large-scale production that have led to the widespread use of electronic computers, the development of automated control systems, which required the creation of a new mathematical apparatus and economic and mathematical methods. Decision-making methods aimed at achieving the intended goals can be different:
1. a method based on the intuition of the manager, which is due to the presence of his previously accumulated experience and the amount of knowledge in a particular field of activity, which helps to choose and make the right decision;
2. a method based on the concept of "common sense", when the manager, when making decisions, substantiates them with consistent evidence, the content of which is based on his practical experience;
3. a method based on a scientific and practical approach, involving the selection of optimal solutions based on the processing of large amounts of information, which helps to justify the decisions made. This method requires the use of modern technical means and, above all, electronic computers. The problem of choosing a decision by a manager is one of the most important in modern management science. It implies the need for a comprehensive assessment by the leader of the specific situation and the independence of his decision making one of several options for possible decisions.
Since the manager has the opportunity to choose decisions, he is responsible for their implementation. Decisions made go to executive bodies and subject to control over their implementation. Therefore, management must be purposeful, the goal of management must be known. In the control system, the principle of choosing a decision to be made from a certain set of decisions must be observed.
2.4. The effectiveness of managerial decision-making.
The effectiveness of management depends on the complex application of many factors, and not least on the procedure for making decisions and their practical implementation. But in order for the management decision to be effective and efficient, certain methodological foundations must be observed.
The importance of the problems associated with decision-making draws the attention of a wide range of scientists and practitioners, representing widely separated areas of scientific and technical knowledge. In this area, decision-making is a systematized process. I am interested in the topic I have chosen for work, as decision-making is an integral part of the management process. It is the "centre" around which the life of the organization revolves. Many years of decision-making experience converged only on an intuitive reliance on one's own experience. But the responsibility for making organizational decisions is a heavy moral burden; the fate of the organization itself and its individual members may depend on an individual decision in an organization. Therefore, a leader in today's complex, rapidly changing world cannot make rash decisions. A manager who makes certain managerial decisions must combine certain qualities: the art of analyzing situations, deep professional knowledge, decision-making techniques and methods, professional skills in working with people, and others.
3.1. Improving information support for management decisions.
The most important factor in increasing the efficiency of production in any industry is the improvement of management. The improvement of the forms and methods of management is based on the achievements of scientific and technological progress, the further development of informatics, which studies the laws, methods and ways of accumulating, processing and transmitting information using various technical means.
Various information and technical innovations should be perceived as a means of reducing and reducing the cost of the administrative apparatus. For example, the advent of the telephone, radio, television, personal computers, local computer networks and the global Internet, in turn, led to the improvement of the information support system for enterprise management. Ultimately, the role of information in the organizational management of the company is constantly increasing, which is associated with changes in the socio-economic nature, the emergence of the latest achievements in the field of engineering and technology, and the results of scientific research. The scientific and technological revolution has put forward information as the most important factor in the production process. The information process is necessary as an indispensable condition for the operation of modern technology, as a means of improving the quality of the workforce, as a prerequisite for the successful organization of the production process itself.
Planned sources include all types of plans that are developed at the enterprise (long-term, current, operational, self-supporting tasks, technological maps), as well as regulatory materials, estimates, price tags, project tasks, etc.
Sources of accounting information are all data that contain documents of accounting, statistical and operational accounting, as well as all types of reporting, primary accounting documentation.
The leading role in the information support of the analysis belongs to accounting and reporting, where economic phenomena, processes, and their results are most fully reflected. Timely and complete analysis of the data available in accounting documents (primary and summary) and reporting ensures that the necessary measures are taken to improve the implementation of plans and achieve better business results.
With the expansion of computer technology, new machine sources of information also appeared. These include data that is contained in the computer's RAM, on floppy disks, and also issued in the form of various machine programs. Non-accounting sources of information include documents that regulate economic activity, as well as data that are not related to those listed above. These include the following documents:
1) Official documents that a business entity is required to use in its activities: laws of the state, presidential decrees, decrees of the government and local authorities, orders of higher authorities, acts of audits and inspections, orders and orders of the heads of the enterprise.
2) Economic and legal documents: contracts, agreements, decisions of arbitration and judicial bodies, complaints.
3) Decisions of general meetings of the collective, the council of the labor collective of the enterprise as a whole or its individual subdivisions.
4) Good practice study materials obtained from various sources of information (Internet, radio, television, newspapers, etc.).
5) Technical and technological documentation.
6) Materials of special surveys of the state of production at individual workplaces (timing, photography, etc.).
7) Oral information obtained during meetings with members of your team or representatives of other enterprises.
In relation to the object of study, information can be internal and external. The system of internal information is the data of statistical accounting, operational accounting and reporting, planning data, regulatory data developed at the enterprise, etc. The system of external information is the data of statistical collections, periodicals and special publications, conferences, business meetings, official, economic and legal documents, etc.
In relation to the subject of research, information is divided into basic and auxiliary, necessary for a more complete characterization of the subject area under study.
According to the periodicity of receipt, analytical information is divided into regular and episodic. Sources of regular information include planning and accounting data. Episodic information is generated as needed, such as information about a new competitor.
In relation to the processing process, information can be classified as primary (data from primary accounting, inventories, surveys) and secondary, which has passed a certain stage of processing and transformation (reporting, market reviews, etc.).
In the activities of large firms, the transfer of information is an indispensable and paramount factor in the normal functioning of the firm. At the same time, ensuring the efficiency and reliability of information is of particular importance. For many firms, the intra-company information system solves the problems of organizing the technological process and is of a production nature. This concerns, first of all, the processes of providing enterprises with cooperative products coming from specialized enterprises through intra-company channels. Here, information plays an important role in providing information for making managerial decisions and is one of the factors that reduce production costs and increase its efficiency. Forecasting market processes plays a special role.
Of great importance is information about the occurrence in the course of production of deviations from planned indicators that require the adoption of operational decisions.
A significant role in decision-making is played by scientific and technical information containing new scientific knowledge, information about inventions, technical innovations of one's own company and competing firms. This is a continuously replenished general fund and the potential of knowledge and technical solutions, the practical and timely use of which provides the company with a high level of competitiveness.
Information serves as the basis for the preparation of relevant reports, reports, proposals for the development and adoption of management decisions.
Brevity, clarity of wording, timeliness of receipt;
Meeting the needs of specific managers;
Accuracy and reliability, the correct selection of primary information, the optimal systematization and the continuity of the collection and processing of information.
An important role in the use of information is played by the methods of its registration, processing, accumulation and transmission; systematized storage and issuance of information in the required form; production of new numerical, graphic and other information. In other words, it is necessary to consider the technology of information activity.
3.2. Improving the technology of making and implementing management decisions.
Improving the system for developing and making effective management decisions in the face of growing competition in the market of tourist and sanatorium services, instability and insufficient levels of material, technical, personnel and financial support has a significant impact on economic and social performance. The general concept of improving technologies for developing and making effective management decisions is brought to life through the development of programs, budgets and procedures that can be considered as short-term and medium-term management plans. Thus, the improvement of the management system acts as a means of maintaining the competitiveness of the enterprise and as an element of insurance against increasing commercial risks.
Improving the technology for developing effective management decisions and their adoption in the sanatorium and resort sector, in our opinion, requires the use of a whole range of technological approaches, the application of which should be holistic and adequate to the available opportunities, given the financial and economic nature. Development and adoption of management decisions, their effectiveness is largely determined by basic principles, which underlie the increase in the manageability of enterprises in the sanatorium and resort sector. As a base, we propose to use the principle of consistency, it allows you to take into account the complex nature and content of tourist and recreational activities, as a conjugation of interconnected and interdependent parts of a single whole. The principle of integrity presupposes the presence in the cultural and health-improving activity of emergent properties that none of its constituent elements have and which arise only in the process of interaction of these elements. For example, neither the accommodation service, nor the medical department, nor the catering service of the cultural and recreational complex are independently able to carry out the completed technological process, since other units are involved in its preparation and provision. The principle of functionality is due to the existence in tourist and recreational activities and in each of its elements of its own functional purpose. The sanatorium and health and tourism services themselves, representing a comprehensive service: accommodation, meals, health improvement, transfer, Additional services, each of which performs its own, functional role. The controllability principle will determine the degree of conjugation between the control subsystem and the controlled system according to the degree of complexity, the coincidence of work goals, needs, and interests.
A managerial decision is the result of a specific managerial activity of management. Decision making is the basis of management
At the stage of preparing a managerial decision, an economic analysis of the situation is carried out at the micro and macro levels, including the search, collection and processing of information, as well as problems that need to be addressed are identified and formed.
At the stage of decision-making, the development and evaluation of alternative solutions and courses of action, carried out on the basis of multivariate calculations;
The criteria for choosing the optimal solution are selected;
Choosing and making the best decision.
At the stage of implementation of the decision, measures are taken to specify the decision and bring it to the executors, control over the progress of its implementation, make the necessary adjustments and evaluate the result obtained from the implementation of the decision.
Each management decision has its own specific result, so the goal of management activity is to find such forms, methods, means and tools that could help achieve the optimal result in specific conditions and circumstances. Management decisions can be justified, made on the basis of economic analysis and multivariate calculation, and intuitive, which, although saving time, contains the possibility of errors and uncertainty. Decisions made should be based on reliable, current and predictable information, analysis of all factors influencing decisions, taking into account the foreseeing of its possible consequences. Managers are obliged to constantly and comprehensively study incoming information in order to prepare and make management decisions based on it, which must be coordinated at all levels of the intra-company hierarchical management pyramid. The amount of information that needs to be processed to develop effective management decisions is so great that it has long exceeded human capabilities. It is the difficulties of managing modern large-scale production that have led to the widespread use of electronic computers, the development of automated control systems, which required the creation of a new mathematical apparatus and economic and mathematical methods.
Decision-making methods aimed at achieving the intended goals can be different:
1) a method based on the intuition of the manager, which is due to the presence of his previously accumulated experience and the amount of knowledge in a particular field of activity, which helps to choose and make the right decision;
2) a method based on the concept of "common sense", when the manager, when making decisions, substantiates them with consistent evidence, the content of which is based on his practical experience;
3) a method based on a scientific and practical approach, involving the choice of optimal solutions based on the processing of large amounts of information, which helps to justify the decisions made. This method requires the use of modern technical means and, above all, electronic computers. The problem of choosing a decision by a leader is one of the most important in modern management science. Since a leader has the opportunity to choose decisions, he is responsible for their implementation. The adopted decisions are submitted to the executive bodies and are subject to control over their implementation. Therefore, management must be purposeful, the goal of management must be known. In the control system, the principle of choosing a decision to be made from a certain set of decisions must be observed. The more choice, the more effective management. When choosing a management solution, the following requirements are imposed on it:
validity of the decision; optimal choice; validity of the decision;
brevity and clarity; specificity in time; targeting to performers; efficiency of execution.
For a leader, decision making is not an end in itself. The main concern of a manager is not the choice of an alternative itself, but the resolution of a certain managerial problem. To solve a problem, very often, not a single solution is required, but a certain sequence of solutions and, most importantly, their implementation. Therefore, a decision is not a one-time act, but the result of a process that develops over time and has a certain structure. Based on this, we can give the following definition of this process.
Decision making process - this is a cyclic sequence of actions of the subject of management aimed at resolving the problems of the organization and consisting in analyzing the situation, generating alternatives, making a decision and organizing its implementation.
Conclusion
Decision-making theory should be understood as a system of knowledge that reflects the essence of decision-making, and the patterns, taking into account which they are developed, adopted and implemented in practice. Currently, a number of provisions of the decision-making theory are being critically revised, which is enriched with the theory and practice of advanced management schools. The subject of decision-making theory is the laws (regularities) of the activities of decision-makers, the principles of management and organization of labor, organizational forms, technologies and methods of activity, the essence and content of decisions. The object of the decision-making theory is the systemic activity of management personnel in the management of an organization, primarily in the development, adoption and implementation of decisions. Like any scientific theory, decision theory has its own functions, main tasks, research methods, subject, structure and categorical apparatus. The categories of decision theory are its main part. They reflect the most essential properties of the systemic activity of people involved in the development, adoption and implementation of decisions. The main categories of decision theory are the goal, function, method, activity. The goal is the basic concept in a systematic approach to identifying the relationships between the categories of decision theory. The effectiveness of managerial decisions depends, first of all, on taking into account the requirements of objective laws and management patterns when making a decision. The most important of them (the requirements of which should be taken into account when making a management decision) are the laws of goal-setting, diversity, movement, feedback (general laws of management), as well as the dependence of organizational forms and management methods on the organization's management structure, material and technical base, management conditions, unity of organizational methodological foundations at all levels of management (specific patterns of management)
List of used literature.
1. Grishchenko O.V. Management accounting Lecture notes. Taganrog: TTI SFU, 2007.
2. Remennikov V.B. "Development of a management solution" - Moscow, UNITY-DANA. 2000.
3. Smirnov E.A. Development of management decisions. M.: UNITY-DANA, 2000.
4. Textbook "Personnel Management" - Moscow, 1998.
5. Textbook "Research of control systems" - Moscow, 2000.
6. Fatkhutdinov R.A. Development of a management solution. Textbook. M., 2000.
7. Vesnin V.R. Management: textbook. - 3rd ed., revised. and additional - M .: TK Velby, publishing house 2007
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Golubkov E.P. How to make a decision? Case, 2000
9. Kardanskaya N.L. Fundamentals of managerial decision-making. – M.: Rus. Business literature, 1998
10. Meskon M., Albert M., Hedouri F. Fundamentals of management. M., 2000
11. Orlov AI: Textbook on management. - M.: INFRA - M, 2002
12. Saak A.E., Tyushnyakova V.N. Development of a management solution. Peter, 2007
13. Fatkhutdinov R.A. Development of a management solution, BSh Intel-Synthesis, 2001
Remennikov V.B. "Development of a management solution" - Moscow, UNITY-DANA. 2000.S. 132.
Fatkhutdinov R.A. Development of a management solution. Textbook. M., 2000.S. 81.
Smirnov E.A. Development of management decisions. M.: UNITY-DANA, 2000.S. 99.
Remennikov V.B. "Development of a management solution" - Moscow, UNITY-DANA. 2000.S. 124.
Grishchenko O.V. Management accounting Lecture notes. Taganrog: TTI SFU, 2007.S. 58.
Smirnov E.A. Development of management decisions. M.: UNITY-DANA, 2000.S. 85.
Textbook "Research of control systems" - Moscow, 2000.S. 101.
Grishchenko O.V. Management accounting Lecture notes. Taganrog: TTI SFU, 2007.S. 61.
Fatkhutdinov R.A. Development of a management solution. Textbook. M., 2000.S. 81.
Remennikov V.B. "Development of a management solution" - Moscow, UNITY-DANA. 2000.S. 130.
Fatkhutdinov R.A. Development of a management solution. Textbook. M., 2000.S. 82.
Remennikov V.B. "Development of a management solution" - Moscow, UNITY-DANA. 2000.S. 132
Textbook "Research of control systems" - Moscow, 2000. S. 104.
Fatkhutdinov R.A. Development of a management solution. Textbook. M., 2000.S. 81
Smirnov E.A. Development of management decisions. M.: UNITY-DANA, 2000.S. 99
Textbook "Personnel Management" - Moscow, 1998.S. 190.
Grishchenko O.V. Management accounting Lecture notes. Taganrog: TTI SFU, 2007.S. 57.
1.1 Place of decision in the management process
The Art of Acceptance best solutions, based on experience and intuition, is the essence of any sphere of human activity.
The foundations of decision theory were developed by John von Neumann and Otto Morgenstern. As the problems become more complex, many different branches of this science have appeared that deal with the same problem of analysis. possible ways actions in order to find the optimal solution to the problem under the given conditions.
As an independent discipline, the general theory of decision-making was formed in the early 60s, at the same time the main goal of this theory was formulated - to rationalize the decision-making process. In subsequent years, an applied theory of statistical decisions was also created, which makes it possible to analyze and solve a wide class of management problems associated with limited risk - problems of choice, placement, distribution, etc.
Thus, the decision is the main function in the work of the manager and the central moment of the entire management process.
In a broad sense, this concept includes the preparation of a decision (planning), in a narrow sense, it is the choice of an alternative from various options. At the same time, the development of options, and then the choice of the most effective one, is difficult task, very deep in content and significant volume.
To reflect the essence of a managerial decision, we will give its definition given by B.G. Litvak: “a decision is a conscious conclusion about the implementation or non-implementation of any actions” .
Within the framework of long-term planning, fundamental decisions are made (what to do?), then in the process of current planning, organization, motivation, coordination, regulation, changes in plans - decisions in the narrow sense (how to do?), although such a boundary is conditional.
In practice, the decision problem is specific to deadline pressure, lack of skills or information to solve, unreliability of methods, managers' propensity for routine, disagreements between decision makers (DMs).
All types of decisions made in the management process can be classified according to numerous criteria:
By the object of the decision (oriented to ends or means, fundamental structural or situational);
Reliability of initial information (based on reliable information, risky and unreliable);
The duration of the consequences (long-, medium-, short-term);
Links with the planning hierarchy (strategic, tactical, operational);
Frequency of repetition (random, repetitive, routine);
Production coverage (for the entire company, highly specialized);
The number of decisions in the process of their adoption (static, dynamic, single and multi-stage);
decision makers (individual, group, on the part of managers, on the part of performers);
Accounting for data changes (rigid, flexible);
Independence (autonomous, complementary);
Difficulties (simple and complex).
The most typical decisions made by managers of firms can be classified as follows:
Situational, routine, departmental decisions;
Decisions of medium complexity (current clarifications of the field of activity, decisions under stress and pressure of deadlines, decisions in exceptional cases);
Innovative and defining solutions.
1.2 Decision-making process and its structure
The functioning of any control object is ensured by the execution of control functions, with the help of which the desired or expected state of the control object is formed. But in practice, the actual state of the control object, as a rule, differs from the desired one. In this case, there is a situation called a problem and it becomes necessary to make a decision aimed at eliminating this discrepancy. In this case, the solution can be aimed not only at eliminating the problem, but also at eliminating the possibility of a problem in the future.
Another situation that causes the need for decision-making arises when it is advisable to supplement or change the desired state of the control object. In this case, a task is set, which can be defined as the discrepancy between the previous and subsequent expected state of the control object. Thus, the need for decision-making is associated with the emergence of a problem or with the formulation of a problem.
The decision-making process consists of a sequence of certain actions that make up its structure. At the same time, its validity depends on the clarity of the decision structure.
A solution with a clearly defined structure is shown in fig. one.
Rice. 1. Clearly structured solution
Figure 1 shows that predicted data packets D can be used to calculate predicted results K for alternative solutions A. Further, taking into account the possibility of risk, an alternative A opt is selected that best suits goal A.
As noted, the process of making a decision can be viewed as the execution of an interrelated set of stages and sub-stages of the decision process. The main stages (phases) of decision making are presented in Table 1.
Table 1
| Phase | Phase content |
| 1. Collecting information about possible problems | 1.1 Observation of the internal environment of the firm 1.2. Observation of the external environment |
| 2. Identification and determination of the causes of the problem | 2.1. Description of the problem situation 2.3. Problem Statement 2.4. Assessing its importance 2.5. Finding the cause of the problem |
| 3. Formulation of goals for solving the problem | 3.1. Determination of the company's goals 3.2. Formulating the goals of solving the problem |
| 4. Justification of the strategy for solving the problem | 4.1 Detailed description of the object 4.2 Determination of the area of change of variable factors 4.3 Defining solution requirements 4.4 Determination of criteria for the effectiveness of the solution 4.5. Defining Constraints |
| 5. Development of solutions | 5.1. Splitting a task into subtasks 5.7. Development of options for solving the entire problem |
| 6. Choosing the best option | 6.1. Analysis of the effectiveness of solution options |
| 7. Correction and approval of the decision | 7.1. Working out a solution with performers |
| 8. Implementation of the solution | 8.1. Preparation of the implementation work plan 8.2. Its implementation 8.3. Making changes to the solution during implementation 8.4. Evaluation of the effectiveness of the adopted and implemented decision |
The composition and sequence of decision-making phases depends on each specific case, in which the decision-making process will be refined and individualized.
We list the main changes that may occur in the decision-making algorithm.
The main adjustments may be related to the following changes:
Sub-stages may not take place in such a sequence, they may break, jump, obey feedback, overlap, parallel movement;
The decision-making process is all the more individual, the more complex the decision;
The limited amount of information limits the rationality of the decision, the role of intuition grows;
Presets for alternatives influence the choice of solution;
There is no desire for an optimal solution if there is a satisfying one;
The participation of several persons and organizational conditions change the order in which the sub-stages are passed;
Managers interfere in the structure and decision-making process in various ways, thus affecting their quality.
Since the decision made is also influenced by the decision maker (responsibility, deepening intuition, gaining experience), we list the most common cases of managerial intervention, given, for example, in the work:
A priori determination of the person making the decision for execution;
Determining the circle of persons involved in the decision;
Participation of the decision maker in its execution;
Determining the moment of decision and its place;
Determination of the methodology and calculation of the solution;
Setting goals and their relative importance;
Limiting the number of alternatives;
Involvement of persons of certain competence;
Monitoring the progress of the decision;
Providing or limiting information;
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Cost. When possible, the methods can be divided into complex and simple. 3 Modern Methods for Calculating Efficiency The diversity of methods requires the inclusion of different specialists in the assessment team and the harmonization of methods used at various stages of the assessment. How effective a management decision is is determined by certain methods. Most modern methods calculation...
